How Are the Themes of Loneliness in “of Mice and Men”?

How are the themes of loneliness and isolation explored in â€Å"Of Mice and Men†? Born in 1902, John Steinbeck, author of ‘Of Mice and Men’, set his book in the 1930’s. The novel revolves around two hard-working men dependant on one another during the Great Depression, a time when most were alone. Many themes are explored in the novel such as racism, loneliness, disability, isolation and friendship. This essay will be talking about how the themes of loneliness and isolation are explored in ‘Of Mice and Men’. Gender is one way in which Steinbeck illustrates loneliness and isolation.The character of Curley’s wife is used to portray this. Throughout the book Curley’s wife is never referred to her name which is unknown. This suggests that she is a possession belonging to Curley. By not having her name mentioned; Curley’s wife remains distant even though she tells Lennie her life story as without a name she remains mysterious. Her marriage to Curley causes for her to be rejected by the ranch workers when she seeks out their attention and friendship. Therefore she is not only lonely but also isolated as there are only men on the ranch who turn away from her.Critics may argue that Steinbeck was too harsh in not giving a name to Curley’s wife but in my opinion John Steinbeck was only portraying the reality of that particular time period. Steinbeck also uses age to explore the themes of loneliness and isolation. Candy, an old ranch worker, is used to display these themes. As the oldest man on the ranch Candy is the most insecure of the men as he knows that if he was to be fired from his job he would have no other place to go to, what with having no family or friends. This knowledge isolates him from the others as there’s no one whom he can relate to this about.Critics may say that John Steinbeck is stereotyping old people as useless. Another way in which the two themes are explored is through ra cism. For this John Steinbeck uses Crooks. As a stable buck and a black person, Crooks is isolated from the other characters. He has his own room which may be fortunate but only further alienates him from the other workers. Crooks shows that he is lonely while talking to Lennie, he says, â€Å"I tell ya a guy gets too lonely an’ he gets sick. † He talks of how he wakes up in the night and sees something but doesn’t know if he was just dreaming, if had a friend he would have asked him.Because of his race Crooks has many disadvantages one of them being that he is not allowed to enter the bunkhouse. Another being that he is abused by the other workers. Crooks is not given a chance to befriend anyone and is therefore both physically and mentally isolated. Lennie shows how disability can lead to loneliness and isolation. His child-like mentality distances him from the other workers. Though he talks to and is talked to by other characters he is isolated in his mind be cause there is still a separation. His disability causes the other characters on the ranch to treat him as inferior.Lennie was told both Crooks’ and Curley’s wife’s life story but it doesn’t mention in the book whether or not he was really listening when the two confided in him. This makes you doubt whether or not Lennie is actually as he is described. Critics may say that Lennie’s character was too unrealistic and overdrawn. Euthanasia is used to explore the themes of loneliness and isolation. Again Lennie is used to display this along with Candy’s dog. Both of them were in a similar situation where their death was what was best for them. Throughout the book Lennie is described as animalistic which further connects him to Candy’s dog.Lennie was killed by someone who cared about him, George, while Candy had wished to have been the one who had killed his dog. Without his dog Candy was left as lonely because though he still had the othe rs, his dog was the one who was always by his side. It shows that Lennie was truly lonely because when he died though George was shaken he had Slim as a friend to replace Lennie. John Steinbeck uses dreams to show loneliness and isolation. George’s character is used to show this. Although most of the ranch workers like George, he is mentally isolated. This is because of his dream which distances him from the other characters.His dream acts as a burden because in the end he knows that it will never come true. His awareness causes for him to be isolated, lonely and unreachable. Financial status also displays loneliness and isolation. For this the character of Curley is used. Curley can be viewed as the villain in the novel because of the abusive way he treats the other workers. He uses his small size as an advantage. The main difference though between him and the workers is money. Curley is married and yet because he is the boss’s son he doesn’t have to work like the others characters do.He uses the fact that he has authority and dominates the ranch workers. But being the boss’ son only further alienates him from the other characters and causes him to be lonely. Curley’s wife would constantly flirt with the other ranch-hands. This made him a subject of ridicule and further isolated him. Another way in which John Steinbeck uses to explore the themes of loneliness and isolation is through marriage. Curley and his wife are used to depict this. Both of them are stuck in a loveless marriage. Curley’s wife revealed to Lennie that she didn’t like Curley.Ways that you can tell Curley doesn’t love his wife is like the fact that he went to a cat house with the other men. In addition, when his wife was killed he set out to punish Lennie instead of mourning her; this shows that he was more interested in getting back at Lennie for personal reasons instead of losing his wife. Curley and his wife are therefore viewed as l onely. Their title as a married couple also isolates them from others on the ranch as there are expectations of how they should act and who they should talk to. Friendship is used by John Steinbeck to display loneliness and isolation.There are many forms of friendship in â€Å"Of Mice and Men†, the main one being George and Lennie’s friendship. The two of them are dependent on one another for different reasons. Lennie needs George to help him because of his mental disability. While George needs Lennie for company. Critics may argue that Steinbeck showed their friendship as abusive and forced. Another friendship brought together by loneliness is Curley’s wife and Lennie. This shows that they were all lonely as they settled for each other purely because they wanted companionship and someone to talk to. John Steinbeck also used other features to display loneliness and isolation.The novel began with a lonely atmosphere as he described the setting. This indicated tha t there was no-one around to describe or mention which gave you the feeling of isolation. Also the name of the city, Soledad, means solitude and loneliness in Spanish. In conclusion, John Steinbeck explored the themes of loneliness and isolation in many ways, using other themes and features. Although Steinbeck doesn’t allow you to clearly see his characters so you are unable to discern whether they are really lonely and isolated or if they are just portrayed and viewed as lonely and isolated.

Cask of Amontialldo †Character Traits Essay

The character of Montresor in, â€Å"The Cask of Amontillado† is one who can only be defined with words along the lines of evil, or wicked. He vows to avenge the bold and childish Fortunato, whom Montresor swears did him wrong. Montresor could be described with many bold words, one being guilty. Though he is guilty, he is determined not to get caught. For instance, Montresor declares, â€Å"I must not only punish, but punish with impunity† (Poe, 1). Essentially, he is saying he will seek revenge on Fortunato, but he will get away with the vicious crime. Another obvious character trait for the devious Montresor, is dishonest. He claims to have obtained a cask of Amontillado, when the reader can tell through situational irony this is not true. He claims, â€Å"†¦ I have received a pipe of what passes for Amontillado, but I have my doubts† (Poe 1). Fortunato unknowingly follows the fiend, and in theory, seals his own fate. Montresor is also quite sneaky. He slyly gets Fortunato into a small inlet in his wine cellar– also a home for skeletal remains. He hastily chains him up before the poor Fortunato can even realize what’s happening. Explaining the situation, Montresor says, â€Å"†¦ inding his progress arrested by the rock, stood stupidly bewildered†¦ a moment more and i fettered him to the granite† (Poe 4). Lastly, Montresor is just plain mysterious. Readers never know exactly why he decided to go after Fortunato, but it is hinted he offended the killer in some way. When asked about his coat of arms, Montresor blatantly states, â€Å"A human foot†¦ the foot crushes a serpent rampant whose fangs are imbedded in the heel† (Poe 3). The motto underneath is â€Å"nemo me impune lacessit† (Poe 3). To conclude, Montresor plays not only a degrading character, but one of many evils.

Strategic Analysis and Presentation of Business Essay

Strategic Analysis and Presentation of Business - Essay Example The completion of the renovations is expected to increase the current revenue by at least 2% every month over the next year for a total of a 24% increase (Hasan, 2012). Negotiations have also been instigated for the inclusion of gasoline sales at this location. In order to install underground gasoline tanks, gas pumps, and a canopy over the fueling area, half of the current parking lot area would need to be fenced off for construction. While this might interfere with business, the profits earned from this venture could potentially exceed the losses endured during the installation of the necessary equipment. Negotiations between a national oil company and Qwick Stop & Go have discussed who would be responsible for the installation of the underground gasoline tanks, gas pumps, and the canopy. Figure 1: Store Layout and Projected Gasoline Mission, Vision, and Guiding Values Organizations write mission statements to specify the values that will govern day-to-day operations, customer serv ice, and promotion and purpose of the business. Most corporations keep the statement simple for easy reading, understanding, and repetition of values (Radtke, 1998). Teaching employees how to incorporate the expected values in daily actions, while employed, requires training and examples that continually enforce the desired outcome. The mission statement for this business is as follows: Qwick Stop & Go convenience store exists to provide customers with a convenient shopping experience with a selection of quality products, exceptional service, and a clean and friendly neighborhood environment. We are committed to our customers and we will be responsive to their needs and viewpoints as we stock our shelves and interact with the individuals throughout our community (Hasan, 2012). Customers are the backbone of the convenience store industry and without their continued patronage Qwick Stop & Go would not exist. Excellent customer service becomes essential to maintaining current customers and earning the business of new clients. Offering the products that the customers need at a fair price also builds customer loyalty (Thompson, Peteraf, Gamble, & Strickland III, 2011). External Environment Five external environmental factors will potentially affect Qwick Stop and Go convenience store’s success. The five factors are social, economical, political, technological, and ecological. Each one of these factors can work independently or collectively to support the business. The new owner needs to observe how each factor interacts with the business and take the necessary steps to ensure that each factor is used as a strength or opportunity (Thompson et al. 2011). The social factor relates to the interaction of the customers and the buying patterns they display. Customers who patronize the Qwick Stop & Go have commented that the benefits of gasoline sales would be worth the initial cost to install the equipment. The owner has discussed this idea with many of the regular customers who frequent the convenience store and decided that looking into the possibility of installing gas pumps on the premises may be a strategic move that would benefit all stakeholders. Many families live within a close proximity of the Qwick Stop & Go convenience store and most of them have more than one car per household. Middle class residential housing

The Distribution and Logistics System Adopted By Wal-Mart Essay

The Distribution and Logistics System Adopted By Wal-Mart - Essay Example This research will begin with the statement that Wal-Mart has 158 centers of distribution globally. These centers of distribution are exceedingly automated and function 24 every day. Every center is more than one million square feet big. The full conveyor belts length within each center is projected to be five miles. There is a totality of seven thousand drivers, 55,000 trailers, and 6,500 tractors. Every distribution center sustains about ninety to one hundred stores, in the expanse of two hundred miles. While considering the growth of trade to a novel area, Wal-Mart has to select a distribution center locality. This location is required to be where ninety to one hundred storehouses have the aptitude to be constructed around. No register is amassed at the centers of distribution given that Wal-Mart utilizes the â€Å"hub-and-spoke† system of distribution. Merchandise is picked up straight from the producers by a 6,500 motor vehicles fleet. They have organized at the hubs afte rward and dispensed to storehouse in one or two days. With particular goods or for unique orders, the corporation also makes the most of the manufacturers’ system of delivery to distribute the merchandise straight from the stockrooms to the stores. Wal-Mart has utilized Radio frequency identification technology, which allows the company to have the aptitude to track merchandise through the chain of supply. An RFID structure is made up of three major components, which are a label, a reader, as well as a central processing unit system. These labels are typically capable of stocking up to 2 kilobytes of data. The stored information may take account of product recognition, the manufacturing time, and the cost of the merchandise. These labels can later be attached independently to the physical merchandise itself or even to the merchandise packaging. Whereas the valuable data is stored within the label, it requires a reader so that it can be able to detect, gather, and make sense o f the information. Lastly, a central processing unit system is utilized to interpret, sort out, and amass the gathered information in a significant manner. Wal-Mart’s technology helps the company to examine the general system well-being, recognizing bottlenecks and additional potentially helpful information. RFID labels are eye-catching since they are effortlessly read and are able to be read this makes it easier for Wal-Mart to be effective in their services.

Case study+ critycal analysis+evaluation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Case study+ critycal analysis+evaluation - Essay Example Also, culture influences managerial philosophy and practice mainly through motivation. The idea that management works through people is vital for managers in an organizational culture to evaluate and assess the level and extent of cultural direction before any change could be effected. Organizational culture affects people – their needs, wants and aspirations, all of which management must tap. The case written by Steven I. Simon and Peter A. Cistaro entitled Transforming Safety Culture exemplifies managing change in organization specifically that of the Public Service Electric and Gas Co. (PSE&G) which is a principal utility located at New Jersey. In addition, the process of change required focusing on culture change as a necessary requirement to achieve an excellent safety management system. So, Kohli (2007) defined safety management system as â€Å"a systematic approach to managing safety, including the necessary organizational structures, accountabilities, policies and procedures† (Kohli, 2007, p. 4). In this regard, the objective of the essay is to present a critical analysis of the case and to identify key challenges of managing change at PSE&G. The discussion would initially present a brief background of the case before detailing the culture change process at the organization. The identification of culture change process would be structured in terms of addressing the following concerns: (1) why was change in culture necessary? (2) What organizational design issues were highlighted? (3) Who are the key personnel instrumental for the change? And (4) how could change be addressed more effectively? The Public Service Electric and Gas Co. (PSE&G) is a principal utility located at New Jersey which has provided gas and electric services to local customers. Also, it employed a total of 6,500 employees by 2007. However, the number of losses since its beginning 27 years ago was recorded at 32. Furthermore, case facts revealed â€Å"an OSHA

Speech Acts in Bilinguals Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words

Speech Acts in Bilinguals - Essay Example According to Levinson, pragmatics is a lot more than mere acquisitions of languages, as it involves the fields which are chiefly concerned with resolving problems in communication, for the reason that the implementation of pragmatics are possible to be of straight sensible significance (Levinson, 1983). As a point in fact, this dissertation is all about pragmatics, speech acts, bilingualism, and acquisitions. Moreover, it efficaciously delineates the profound association between language, culture and society with suitable examples. As suggested by Liu, Pragmatics is a sub-field of linguistics which was developed in the concluding 1970s that analyzes the way individuals and groups comprehend and generate an outgoing or speech act in an efficaciously real speech circumstance which is usually construed as a conversation (Liu, 2007). The study of pragmatics skillfully differentiates between dual intentions or interpretations occurring in each speech or communicative act of the oral communication. As per the views of Leech, whereas, one of the acts may be considered as the educational intention or the statement interpretation, the other is interactive intention or orator interpretation (Leech, 1983). Moreover, Kasper has efficiently pointed out that the competence to understand and generate an interactive act is often referred to as pragmatic competence, as it includes one's know-how regarding the communal coldness and position between the orators that are involved in it, along with the cultural know-how and lingui stic information, both clear and implied (Kasper, 1997). According to Paradis, language analysts conventionally apprehend themselves with the system of language which is often construed as implied linguistic ability, or grammar, that is characteristically ensuing to lacerations in the perisylvian conventional dialect fields of the left cerebral hemisphere (Paradis, 2004). Various studies associated with interpersonal communication have frequently misconceptions as their essential grouping as cross-societal communication is merely as often featured by the accomplishment, and directs to reasonable comprehension as intra-cultural interaction. Whilst, the exploitation of an ordinary language fails to assure reciprocated comprehension, the non-attendance of an ordinary dialect essentially fails to secure it. The effectual understanding with no common language is a recurring subject matter in modern advertising as well. The doctrines of pragmatics that people put up in a particular language are often dissimilar in another. As a point in fact, th ere exists an increasing curiousness in the way people in different dialects construe to a particular pragmatic doctrine (Liu, 2007). As reported by various analyses regarding cross-linguistics as well as cross-cultures, the graciousness in one language does not

Program Theory Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Program Theory - Assignment Example To successfully carry out evaluation on this program, data collection was very crucial. The research methods that were applied in the data collection process included observation and use of semi-structured interviews by the research assistants (Chen, Wan & Lin, 1997). These two methods fall under the wider qualitative techniques that are deemed efficient in uncovering the people’s experience to different situations. In addition, the data collection methods did not require many participants hence making it less costly to carry out. The main drawback of the research method is the fact that the participation of only a section of the population (residents of Nei-fu) made it hard to draw statistical inferences to the rest of the country. My program the non-infectious diseases reduction program is derived from the Centers for Disease Control whose main goal is to protect public health. The main aim of this program will be to encourage outdoor sports activities meant to keep a person physically fit and free from lifestyle diseases. Some of the components of this particular evaluation that would be useful in my program evaluation are both the process and outcome evaluation. This will help in the determination of the success of implementation of the program based on the observed outcome. It will only be possible to conduct the program evaluation after a specific period of time in order to establish whether participants of the program have been able to adopted healthy lifestyles or behaviors during their engagement in outdoor sporting activities. Since changing a person’s behavior takes a while, the considerable time to conduct the evaluation is after four

Private Equity and Venture Capital Journal Review Essay

Private Equity and Venture Capital Journal Review - Essay Example cal analysis of the study of Brav and Gompers (1997) who tried to identify the underperformance of Initial Public Offerings using financial data from venture and non-venture firms. In fact approximately 934 venture-backed IPOs and 3,407 non – venture backed IPOs were used for the completion of the relevant study. The period to which these data refer should be characterized as sufficient – if taking into consideration the fact that data for the years 1972-1992 have been used in the relevant research. Through this research Brav et al. (1997) came to the following conclusions: ‘venture-backed IPOs outperform non-venture - backed IPOs using equal weighted returns; value weighting significantly reduces performance differences and substantially reduces underperformance for non-venture-backed IPO’ (Brav et al., 1997, 1791). In other words, the underperformance of IPOs is depended primarily on the form/ type of IPOs; venture backed IPOs are less like to underperfor m if compared with the non-venture – backed IPOs. The specific issue has been analyzed by Brav et al. (1997) using a wide range of views from existed literature. At a first level the above researchers refer to the study of Ritter (1991) and Loughran et al. (1995) highlighting ‘the severe underperformance of initial public offerings (IPOs) during the past twenty years; investors may systematically be too optimistic about the prospects of firms that are issuing equity for the first time’ (Brav et al., 1997, 1791). The studies of Ritter and Loughran et al. can be used in order to present the possible prospects for IPOs in modern market. Other studies used by Brav et al. (1997, 1791) can be used in order to identify the key concepts related with the behaviour of IPOs (referring to their financial performance within a specific period of time). The views of other researchers like Lee et al. (1991), Gompers (1995), Hoshi et al. (1991) and Fazzari et al. (1988) have been used in order to support the

Evolution of Art forms Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Evolution of Art forms - Essay Example Baroques artistic style was most influential art form which spreads its features entire Europe. The artifacts used to depict simple, robust and well format meaning in each art form. Baroques were initially used to proliferate much of the religious and spiritual conscience in Europe. The art forms exhibited artistic grandeur of high society to the external world. The roman empire which has been decentralized with the efforts from people like Martin Luther king have demanded for more precise religious expansion from Roman church elite. Roman Catholic Church society has evolved steps to move the catholic religious into the people by depicting the features of important aspects in art form. Bernini was one of most acclaimed artist of this era who carved a "cornaro chapel" with Saint Theresa as a focal attraction. As time passed the religious importance was condemned in future eras mostly in neoclassic era. Neoclassicism is a period where the art form depicted the historical events with more clarity and distinctiveness .The art forms were extended to contemporary issues. The art forms were derived from rich historical basics which were well accepted and molded in new artistic form. The neoclassic art were implicated from famous artifacts. The neoclassic artists tried to carry the glory of the baroques and rococo in their works.

Paralegal class assignmnet #5 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Paralegal class assignmnet #5 - Assignment Example Although this decision is contrary to my understanding of the relative power of the Federal versus state government, it does not affect what I stand for. I disagree with this decision for I hold that the supremacy of the Supreme Court, as defined in Article III, gives it the jurisdiction over such a case. Q2: Natural law refers to the system of universal law that is determined by nature. In The Antelope case, the US Supreme Court examined the validity of the slave trade following the capture of a ship ferrying slaves from Africa. By the natural law, the slave trade is illegal for it denies human being of their freedom. In this case, however, the national legislation recognized the slaves as the legal properties of the Vessel crew. The positivist argument prevailed, and the judges held that the master was lawfully transporting his ‘possession. Although every judicial theory has unique advantages and limitations over the others, I find judicial restraint as the most appropriate approach for todays justice system. Judicial restraint encourages the judges to limit their power and influence and instead stick to the constitutional provisions. By strictly interpreting the legislations appropriately, judges live to the letter and spirit of the doctrine of separation of powers which defines the legislature as the law formulating body and not the judiciary. The use of marijuana has been illegal in several countries in the world. However, researchers have proved the medicinal value of this controversial plant. Studies have shown that bhang can be used as a painkiller and in the treatment of brain problems (Sharma 179). For this reason, bhang use should not be prohibited as it is the case in many countries. Q3: Deposition, Interrogatory and request for admission are the three primary methods of discovery that enables the party to the case exchange information

The Main Purpose of Accounting Essay Example for Free

The Main Purpose of Accounting Essay Keeping track of transactions and recording revenue and expenses are an important process, often assigned to an accounting department or a financial manager. Accounting allows companies to provide reports and insights needed to make sound financial decisions. The main purpose of accounting is to identify and record all activities of the income and the outcome that will affect the organisation financially. All activities, including purchases, sales, the capital and interest earned from investments are recorded in ledgers or journals. Entrepreneurs have to understand and complete a variety of business functions. An important business function when starting a business is accounting. Although many entrepreneurs may have to deal with stacks of financial documents but accounting often provides entrepreneurs with the clearest picture of their businesses success. Entrepreneurs must also keep records regarding the business start-up for tax and legal purposes. Filing records like these with great organisation will help run the business more efficiently and responsibly. Why is it important to keep accurate financial records, and how will this help the entrepreneur? Financial records will become very important when the tax season comes but they are also important in the day to day business. Preparing financial statements such as income statements, balance sheets, and cash flow statements are important because they show how successful the business is, an income statement list revenues and expenses for the business. Accounting how much income is coming in from all channels, it can include accounts receivable, sales, etc. These items are the business revenues. Expenses should be clear because they are everything that is paid out of the business including the operating expenses, the difference between these will be the net income. To help the entrepreneur in the business, financial records should always be up to date so that it can display an accurate snapshot of the business at any time, this way the entrepreneur won’t have to back track, always keeping the business accounting affairs in order. What is meant by revenue and expenditure?  Revenue is for the business. This is the total amount of money received by the business for goods sold or services provided during a certain time period. In terms of reporting revenue in a businesses financial statement, different businesses may consider revenue to be received in different ways. For example, revenue could be received when a deal is signed, when the money is received or when the services are provided. Expenditure is spending money in order to create future benefits, which means that the money is being spent on a fixed asset, or on making sure that an existing asset has its useful life extended beyond the life of the current tax year. This could be equipment, property or industrial buildings. The difference between capital and revenue expenditure is that capital expenditure results in an addition to an asset to the business, however revenue expenditure results in an addition to the expense account. Capital expenditures are payments for asset additions and replacements. Revenue expenditures benefit a current period and are made for maintaining assets with routine repairs or replacement of a small part. A capital expenditure will benefit two or more accounting periods and expenses for future accounting periods. Revenue expenditure will cause an understatement of net income in that year. When expensing an item, it goes into the expense side of the income records where as capitalising an item will be processed on the total balance sheet. Revenue income and Capital income Capital income is money coming in from the owner of the business or outside investors for the business. It is used to buy things that will stay in the business for a long time, for example the business building, vehicles or equipment which is initially referred to assets. Revenue income is money coming in from selling goods and providing a day to day service. The main sources are; sales, rent received or commission received. The types of Capital income to expect to incur are such things as: Loans- The amount of money lent to the business from the bank. The lump sum the bank offer to give you has to be paid back in lump sums, at certain amounts, per month over the time period given. The bank will add a monthly interest onto the loan which is usually a percent of the amount borrowed. These monthly  payments need to be paid back, even if the business does not succeed. Mortgages- Mortgages are similar to loans, but tend to give out longer time periods to pay the lump sum back. To secure the mortgages you will need to put assets on line. This is usually the property you used the mortgage to pay for. The types of Revenue income to expect to incur are such things as: Sales- Or sales revenue is money coming into the business from the sales of or services. The sales can be paid for cash, which is the more comment payment, be paid by debit card or credit of the store, being paid for later on. Rent received- A business that owns property and chargers others to use all of or part of the property. The business will receive rent from this inhibitor. Commission received- A business that may sell products or services as a part of another business. For each sale they will make a percentage of what the customer pays for that sale. This percent is called commissions.

Analysis of Global Automobile Market

Analysis of Global Automobile Market EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The purpose of the report is to assess the recent strategies employed by global automobile organisations between 2007 and 2010 based on secondary data and published press. Organisations thereafter refer to global automobile organisations. This report explores the process of reconciling dichotomies at Honda Motors Corporations (HMC) in terms of its strategies and core competences. Several theoretical frameworks were derived from related literature as a guide to analyse and integrate relevant elements from business level and corporate level strategies application. The roles on mergers and acquisitions (MA) applied in the global automobile industry are then discussed. This section is structured as follows: part 1 reveals MA in relation to too much debts and risk of bankruptcy; part 2 describes MA as a strategy to explore potential for product synergy and part 3 illustrates MA as means to access to new technologies and emerging markets. This report examines the corporate social responsibility (CSR) practices initiated by the organisations and its impact on the financial and non-financial performance. The report ends at discussion the Western and Japanese leadership used by the global automobile organisations and their suitability. INTRODUCTION OVERVIEW OF GLOBAL AUTOMOBILE INDUSTRY The automobile industry can be divided into three categories: auto parts vendors, automobile manufacturers and dealers. The global automobile market has been long dominated by Western manufacturers such as General Motors, Chrysler and Volkswagen in 1955 followed by eastern automobiles manufacturers Toyota, Honda and Nissan since 2005. In 2009, Toyota was the worlds leading car manufacturer with approximately 15.3 percent market share, Volkswagen 13.1 percent and Ford approximately 6.9 percent market share (Datamonitor 2009). Recently automobile manufacturers in developing countries such as Hyundai, Tata and Geely have increasingly become vital players in the automobile market, Hyundai is now one of the significant players in the United States market (Fetscherin and Toncar 2010) whereby Tata and Geely have begun to take aim at developed country automobile markets and intend to compete in the global automobile market (Fetscherin and Toncar 2010). The 2008 global financial downturn had negatively impacted the automobile industry into crisis thus many organisations were encountered losses and bankruptcy. Nevertheless, there were four outstanding organisations recorded remarkable profit during this turbulent period: Volkswagen, Honda, Hyundai and BMW (Appendix 1). Forecasts predict that the global car industry will be worth $1,611 billion by 2014 with the volume of 66.2 million units (Datamonitor, 2009). HONDA STRATEGY AND MANAGERIAL DICHOTOMIES HMC established in 1948. Honda develops, manufactures and markets small general purpose engines and scooters to specialty sports cars, had earn an outstanding reputation from customers worldwide. Honda has grown to become the worlds largest motorcycle manufacturer and one of the leading automobile manufacturers. There are seven business units in HMC (Figure 1). Figure 1 Honda SBU.jpg Honda business level strategy versus corporate level strategy in global context Business level strategy refers to the way HMC competes in an industry which it is located. Porter generic strategies framework had been employed to examine each Honda strategic business units (SBU) (Figure 2). Figure 2 Porter generic.jpg Honda sets out cost leadership strategy to produce an urban car with fuel efficient feature, Honda City, a successful model had reflected Hondas innovative and quick response to market demand on inexpensive and fuel efficient (Nonaka 2007). Honda enjoys the cost advantage to produce and market its Hero Honda motorcycle in India by preference to access to raw materials and efficiency of production capability (Ramarao 2009). Honda continuous seeks for cost reductions to competitive position. Differentiation involves offering a unique product with special characteristic however the selling price may not be low (Fitzroy and Hulbert 2005) Honda created Acura series to isolated its common automobile ranges. Acura is a higher range to compete with luxury category, i.e. Toyota Lexus. Honda Acura differentiates itself from product features and engine performance. Honda produces a series of scooter range from 50cc to 125cc to meets different demands for different markets (HMC 2009). Honda launched specialty engines GX160, GX200 and GX390 for better handling and durability suitable for long tail boats which are common water transportation in Asia (HMC 2009). Honda Insight, a hybrid vehicle that incorporated a compact and lightweight hybrid system to offer fuel economy while maintain the pleasure of driving (HMC 2009). Besides differentiation strategies, Honda performs well in its private jets, ATVs, watercrafts, outboard motors and jets. Honda differentiates focus on dual clutch transmission and water cooled engines in its FourTrax Rancher ATVs (HMC 2009). Honda started Hondajet since 2006, the private jet featured by HF120 compact turbofan engine for low emission where the first delivery is expected in 2011 (HMC 2009). Corporate strategy is the future organisations directions against resources possessed by the organisation (Lynch 2000). Corporate strategy links organisations internal resources and the social economic environment that it operates (Lynch 2000). HMCs sense of purpose is to striving to be a company society wants to exist (HMC 2009). In view of intense competition (threats) and strong demand (opportunities) from HMC operating environment (Figure 3), HMC had implemented some value added corporate strategies. Figure 3 Corporate strategy.jpg Product diversification concerns an expansion of product range that Honda supplies. Honda extended its product range from light truck to compact sedan cars. In North America, HMC introduces Pilot, Acura TSX and Acura TL to meet the different market requirements (HMC 2009). HMC broaden its range to launched Honda City in Asia outside Japan as the trend towards driving smaller cars accelerated along with the increase in fuel prices (HMC 2009). Vertical integration is an expansion of range of business related activities that HMC encompasses (Fitzroy and Hulbert 2005). Honda opens up financial services division to lease their automobiles and services centres for pre and after sales services to strengthen its branding position as one stop vehicle provider. Geographical diversification is an expansion to wider geographical areas mainly to create additional market share or obtaining competitive advantages. HMC has a global network of 396 subsidiaries and 105 affiliates in more than five regions and 160 countries recorded 3.5 million units automobiles sales in 2009 (HMC 2009). HMC established its manufacturing plants in various countries to support domestic demand rather than manufacture in Japan and export, this will help in shorten the delivery lead time and incentive in domestic assembly. Successful organisations must outgrow their initial scope of products and geographical areas (Fitzroy and Hulbert 2005). Horizontal integration refers a diversification into different industries. Besides automobile, HMC broadens its business into different industries i.e. aviation business, solar cell business and household cogeneration units (HMC 2009). Honda product-related core competencies versus process-related core capabilities In practice, HMCs capability is as the main drivers for its shareholder values. Honda started with motorcycle business had move on to engine business and the most successful automobiles consists of 77 percent of its revenue. HMCs success underlying its core competence in engines design allows HMC to develop more products i.e. lawn mowers, motorcycles, automobiles and private jets (McGee and Thomas 2007). Substantial increase in fuel price, new customer preferences and spending patterns are a significant momentum to the pricing model and value proposition changes whereby consumers emphasize on good price for reasonable quality (Giesen et. al. 2010). As part of corporate strategy, Honda enhances its Research and Development (RD) particularly in safety technologies to help reduction on the risk of injuries to passengers and pedestrians from car accidents and fuel efficient cars, i.e. Honda Freed and Honda City. Honda recognises the rational to develop non-pollutions product in the first place than to clean up later. The electric car demonstrates a technological solution for the air pollution caused by automobile emission (Bernabo et. al. 2009). However, due to the charging centre constraints and maturity of the power supply capacity for longer journey, HMC focuses on its hybrid car Insight to meet the demand. Lean management focuses on eliminating waste (non-value adding activities) throughout HMC production systems (Chen et. al. 2010). By selective sharing of design development, HMC can focus resources and competencies on a limited set of innovative ideas and reduce their direct costs for innovating many of the components in their products (Chen et. al. 2010). A safety-induced crisis causes obvious problems for a brand like Honda which pride itself on reliability and the promise to deliver the power of dream(Banks 2010). HMC need both vendors and dealers to complete the complicated fabrication processes and reaches end consumers. In contrast to many competitors, HMC realises the importance of turning vendors into partners, loop the vendors into product design and development to shorten both new product lead time and reduce overall cost concerning the inventory holding (Nguyen and Slater 2010). The vendor development programmes include joint improvement, information sharing an updates, offer assistance to lift up vendors technical capabilities (Nguyen and Slater 2010). i.e. HMC make use of its vendor network to expand low price components accessibility in Vietnam had considerable reduce HMC production cost thus selling price (Oh and Rhee 2010). HMC factory networks operate the same way so each is able to make any vehicle in the product range according to market demand. This gives the company tremendous flexibility, efficient logistics to enhanced its manufacturing (Economist 2003). HMC installed special data systems in each of its factories to monitor weather forecasts to allows manager to predict bad weather which may affect deliveries so they can decide the stock up level to prevent material shortage (Economist 2003). To enhance the dealers ability, HMC trains and develops its dealer networks with operating procedures and policies in setting up the showroom, merchandising and service management (Oh and Rhee 2010). Honda Vietnam strict controls over vendors to ensure stable and good quality supply (Oh and Rhee 2010). Conclusion The analysis shows the density of HMC in managing its global organisation. Business strategies and corporate strategies are in different dimension but intimately link to each other, HMC needs to understand the external context of business when develop business and corporate strategies. HMC strengthen its production efficiency, flexibility and sales capabilities in various business units to meet the demand for cost effective products at the same time improve its corporate structure towards more flexible and dynamic to meet customers demand, business environment a society as a whole. There is no single best strategy applied for all products, Honda had demonstrated adequate thinking in developing suitable strategies for its products in different geographical areas. THE ROLE OF MERGERS AND ACQUISITIONS Mergers and acquisitions act as a strategic tool to obtain wider market share and create synergies-improvements in competitiveness, customer value or product innovation that can be achieved by integrating two entities (Gadiesh et. al. 2001, Thompson et. al. 2005). The global automobile business faces severe challenges with reduction in sales and intense competition and opportunities in emerging markets, such as China and India. Network-level strategies is useful in turbulent and growth markets yet an organisation had limitations access or unable to pursue that competition by on its own (Cools and Roos 2005). Boston Consulting Group (BCG) matrix was used to analyse global automobile organisations positions (Figure 4). Figure 4 BCG.jpg MA in relation to too much debts and risk of bankruptcy One of the most important factors in mergers and acquisitions is debt and bankruptcy during recession (Cappell 2010). Organisation fall in BCG Dog category (Figure 4), i.e. Volvo, General Motors and Ssangyong are forced look for suitable partner to sustain its limited market share. A research carried out by Ostermann and Neal (2009) reveals that there were 25 automobile vendors are in the high debt and bankruptcy risk (Figure 5). Figure 5 25 Bankruptcy.jpg If a business unit no longer generate positive returns on investment for the organisation without massive investment, some organisation opt trade off the business unit and exit the industry (Lynch 2000). Ford Motor sold Volvo to China Geely at US$1.8 billion as part of Fords strategy of exiting European luxury lines to focus on Fords brand (Starbiz 2010). In the scramble to swap gas guzzlers for smaller vehicles thus reduction in use vehicle residual value forcing General Motors finance arm into huge losses on cars returned after leased (The Economist 2009). Ssangyong, formerly controlled by Chinas SAIC Motor Corporations was under bankruptcy protection in early 2009 due to cash shortage crisis to be acquired by Indian largest sport utility vehicles manufacturer, Mahindra (Bloomberg 2010). Mahindra gives Ssangyong financial supports, engineering and sourcing synergies (Bloomberg 2010). MA as a strategy to explore potential for product synergy To response to the zero COÂÂ ² emission, BMW, Daimler and General Motors formed an alliance in 2005 to develop hybrid vehicle technology. The ultimate solution to zero carbon dioxide emission is electric cars (Bernabo et. al. 2009). Nissan sees future trends towards electric car however electric cars design is highly challenging thus Nissan joint venture with NEC Tokin for synergy where NEC Tokin focuses on cell technology and electrode manufacturing so Nissan can concentrate in mass production (Taylor III 2010). Automobile organisations are focused on potential partners technological ability than cost savings achievement (Cappell 2010). PSA Peugeot produces diesel engines with Ford Motor (Financial Times n.d.). Ford Motor and Fiat share a manufacturing plant in Tychy, Poland to produce Ford smaller car, Ka and Fiat 500 (Financial Time n.d.). Daimler announced strategic partnership with Renault and Nissan to build small cars, engines and van together (Financial Times n.d.). In addition, as pressure on developed country manufacturers increases to reduce costs, they might look to China as sources of inexpensive manufacturing and might increasingly manufacture their cars in China and export them to developed countries (Fetscherin and Toncar 2010). General Motors, Ford and Chrysler are currently producing cars in China in joint ventures with Chinese manufacturers (Fetscherin and Toncar 2010). Many family-owned organisations i.e. PSA, BMW and Fiat are reviewing their portfolio and seeking restructuring alliances to lower cost in part purchase and spreading research and development cost however subject to Europe Union competition ruling (Czinkota and Ronkainen 2001). MA as means to access to new technologies and emerging markets Many organisations have responded to globalisation by looking at joint ventures with international partners when they needed to bridge a technology gap (Czinkota and Ronkainen 2001). A survey carried by KPMG in 2009 shows 85 percent of the automotive senior executives presumed new technologies is an influencing issue in global automotive industry (Chappell 2010). PSA Peugeot Citroen joint ventures with Toyota to produce small cars in the Czech Republic for achieve economies of scale (Financial Times n.d.). Chrysler builds minivans for Volkswagen in Winsor, Ontario since 2008 (Financial Times n.d.). Traditional automobile markets are still expanding but more importantly the emerging markets in China, India and Korea are expanding rapidly likely to enter the US automobile market (Fetscherin and Toncar 2010). Network level strategy plays an important role to uplift the competitive advantage to compete in automobile industry, especially Chinese automotive manufacturers who follow the footsteps of the Western, Japanese and South Korean car manufacturers. China automobile manufacturers will aggressively enter the US market by either exporting or by building their own production sites in the USA (Fetscherin and Toncar 2010). The implication of MA is to reduce threat while simultaneously capitalising on emerging market growth (Gill 2008). Acquisition of Ssangyong by Mahindra gives Mahindra an access to distribution networks of 1,300 dealers outside South Korea and Russia automotive market where previously Ssangyong exports vehicles (Bloomberg 2010). Conclusion Mergers and acquisitions had been widely practised in automotive industry due to the automotive manufacturing investment for new entry is huge and need years of experiences and expertise. Many joint ventures were found among automobile organisations aim to lower their production costs to make the selling price more competition; some merger strategy had achieved synergy in product design and development. In the turbulent economic environment, mergers and acquisitions give automobile organisations a quick fix and direct access to a growing market for more market share. Mergers and acquisitions are mainly creating value for mutual benefits to both parties. 4.0 CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY INITIATIVES The conventional business goal is maximising shareholders returns (Bonini et. al. 2006, Whittington 2001). However organisations are perceived as being socially responsible may create valuable market opportunities and increase more satisfied customers (Bonini et. al. 2006, Crane and Matten 2007). Davis (1973) stated that corporate social responsibility (CSR) refers to organisations consideration on action that will accomplish environment social benefits and ethical responsibilities along with the financial gains which the organisation seeks (As cited in Hoffman 2007, Polonsky and Jevans 2009). CSR helps to improve employee engagement to strive for better management, declining in employee perceptions will leads to significant threats to engagement (Hall 2010). Organisations always have an implied contract to embraces a diverse range of stakeholders which may have different social interests (Bonini et. al. 2006, Polonsky and Jevons 2010). Organisations can opt to react, defence, accommodate and proactive towards CSR as part of global strategies. Being socially responsible important however organisations must make a conscious decision about the degree to which they then leverage their CSR activities, thus translating doing good into strategic benefit (Polonsky and Jevons 2009). The five global automobile organisations demonstrate adequate CSR initiatives to improve their brand standing in automobile industry (Appendix 2). The CSR actions had contributed both positive profits to Honda, Hyumdai, Toyota and Volkswagen, also a negative loss to Daimler even though Daimler pursing quite adequate CSR actions. Global automobile organisations are aiming to achieve the highest category of the CSR: Philanthropic responsibilities. The most common practices are social projects, donations and sponsorship (Hall 2010). CSR needs resources such as funds and employees participation. Organisations are facing dilemma to satisfy the stakeholders with different social interests (Polonsky and Jevons 2009). Some authors criticised that global automobile manufacturers who produce fuel guzzling SUVs for urban users at the same time promote fuel-efficient vehicles to public (Polonsky and Jevons 2009). CSR may not directly impact the organisations financial performance as revenue may be affected by other factors such as economic. However a significant observation from literature reviews that organisations are difficult to sustain or strengthen its market share standing if they are not socially responsible to the society, this may adversely affect their long term value, the brand, talent and relationship (Bonini et. al. 2006, Hall 2010, Piotrowski and Guyette 2010). WESTERN AND JAPANESE LEADERSHIP APPROACHES When automobile industry was leaded by Western countries, Western leadership by Frederick W. Taylor was widely applied in the automobile manufacturers such as General Motors and Ford (Darmody 2007). His idea of leadership was planning and decision making lies on management level while production workers only participate in predetermined executions to ensure efficiency (Almashaqba and Al-Qeed 2010, Darmody 2007). Western leadership was emphasised on efficiency to maximize profits. In Western leadership, the role and responsibilities, authority and accountability, procedures and practices between management and workers are formalized to avoid the conflict in the relationship (Almashaqba and Al-Qeed 2010). Japanese leadership deliberately stresses decentralized management structure, praises the achievements of individuals and gives rewards to outstanding performance (De Wit and Meyer 2004). Autonomy similar to trust in eastern countries, decentralization and rewards can improve employees morale thus productivity. Japanese leadership introduces lean strategy and just-in-time production techniques to achieve production flexibility without increasing indirect labor costs (Shadur and Bamber 1994). These provide automobile organisation to deliver what is expected by customers in just-in-time (Chen et. al. 2010). A research done by Abbggelen and Stalk (1985) shows that the United States automotive plants required 250 percent human resources compared to the Japanese plant to make similar vehicle (Shadur and Bamber 1994). Just-in-time approach is dependent on the balance between the vendors flexibility and users flexibility (Slack et. al. 2007). Parker and Slaughter (1988) comments that lean production is a intensifies the pace of work as the production is operated in closing to the breaking point without supporting buffers, organisation may face severe difficulty when there is a material shortage (As cited in Shadur and Bamber 1994). Some analysts see lean production techniques as merely a subtle form of management control (Mehri 2006, Shadur and Bamber 1994). Japanese leadership focuses on waste reduction and value-adding activities, these focuses are short-term benefits thus Japanese leadership may ignore long-term competitive advantages (Chen et. al. 2010). A recent qualitative research had lifted Japanese leaderships veil as limited potential for creativity and innovation, narrow professional skills, worker isolation and harassment, dangerous conditions on the production line, accident cover-ups, excessive overtime, and poor quality of life for workers (Mehri 2006). The Japanese and western leadership are different in process. There are pros and cons between Western and Japanese leadership and not single ultimate solution for automobile organisations in different geographical area, the leadership application is subject to the culture of the workforce, labour union and availability of resources i.e. logistic, material and expertise. Shadur and Bamber (1994) points out General Motors plants in Australia faces challenge when they started lean production due to the culture different from the labour union and employees who used to work in a team than individual. Although several criticisms of lean production were discussed, however it is concluded that Japanese leadership can potentially contribute to a substantial improvement in automobile manufacturing competitiveness. CONCLUSION Business strategy is about creating sharper scope focus on a business unit contrast with corporate strategy which concerned an overall portfolio of several business units a whole. HMC had strengthened both product-related core competencies and process-related capability to strive for excellence in HMC establishment as a responsible organisation. Mergers and acquisitions are very important to global automotive organisations for reduce the risk in bankruptcy, achieve cost reduction and production effectiveness and explore potential for new product and gives instant access to new technologies. Cost and stakeholders value is crucial consideration when organisations decide on the investment in CSR action plans since the financial returns are not easily measured. This report concluded that there are more advantages than disadvantages for CSR as strategic tool in global strategies. Both Western and Japanese leadership was develop in the different industrial time therefore some of the leadership element many not be suitable to automobile organisations such as mass production in low turnover season. There is no single definite answer to the best combination of leadership as application is based on culture, geographical and strong commitment from vendors to avoid production breakdown. LIST OF REFERENCES Almashaqba, Z. M. S. and Al-Qeed, M. A. N. (2010). The Classical Theory of Organisation and its Relevance. International Research Journal of Finance and Economics. Vol. 41. EuroJounals Publishing, Incorporated. Banks. T. (2010). Rescue remedies. Design Week. p.9. http://elib.segi.edu.my:2094/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?vid=1hid=15sid=d7731cd4-b9d9-417c-b0d0-7caa46ceba42%40sessionmgr10 [Accessed on 31st August 2010]. 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Employment Relations In France Economics Essay

Employment Relations In France Economics Essay Within Europe France is known for its exceptional employment relations. The French employment relations are characterised by rather low social dialogue and a great interventions of the state. This paper will closely look at the social actors and their role by putting emphasis on collective bargaining and its development since 1980s. The major trends with special attention to the Aubrey Laws will conclude the overview. France Overview With a current population of 64,7 million (INSEE, 2010), France belongs to the most modern countries in the world and to the leaders among European countries (CIA World Factbook). According to EIROnline (2007), French GDP growth, inflation, productivity growth, and the unemployment rate do not substantially differ from EU averages, as indicated in Table 1. Table 1 Facts Figures Source: EIROnline, 2007 The economy in France, which traditionally has been characterised by considerable government ownership and state intervention (dirigeisme), is shifting towards a market-driven economy (CIA World Factbook). Although the state is still present in sectors such as power, public transport, and telecommunication, it has privatised many large companies. With the era of rigueur (rigour) the government extensively distanced itself from economic intervention. Though dirigisme decreased, France is still typified as a state-dominated economy (Jenkins, 2000), especially in the labour market. The political environment in France has been characterised by volatility which changed with the inception of the Fifth Republic in 1958 (Goetschy and Jobert, 2004). From 1958 to 1981 the Right took the reins, while in 1981 the socialist dominance under Franà §ois Mitterrand took over which resulted in period of instability (Knapp and Wright, 2006, p. 254). Governments of the right and left experienced a rotative period, with a temporary cohabitation (Goetschy and Jobert, 2004). In 1995 Franà §ois Mitterrand turned over the reins to Jacques Chirac, a right president, who lasted till 2007. His successor, Nicolas Sarkozy from the right government is the current President of France. Employment Relations in France Employment relations in France are highly influenced by the demographics as well as the legal and political environment of the country (Cerdin and Peretti, 2001). According to the National Institute for Statistics and Economic Studies (INSEE, 2010), the employment rate for the working population in 2008 accounted for about 28 million, corresponding to 56,2 percent of employed people above 15 years. Whereas the unemployment rate in France amounted for 7,8 percent in 2008 which correspond to 2.1 million people. The young people (15 to 24 years-old) are representing the majority of the unemployed with about 19 percent (in 2008). Generally, the young people are most sensitive to the economic fluctuation of the employment market. The labour market participation rate of the 15 to 24-years old is declining due to the trend towards longer schooling (Goetschy and Jobert, 2004, p. 177). France has more women in work force than EU average (Brewster et al., 2004). The female labour market participation has risen from 37 percent in 1963 (Goetschy and Jobert, 2004, p. 176) to almost 52 percent in 2008 (INSEE, 2009). Within Europe, France is characterised by an increased age of the working population. While the proportion of the people between 20 and 59 years decreases, the population proportion of under 20-year-old and above 60-year-old grows. Two factors are responsible for this peculiarity the post-war population explosion as well as the collapse of the birth rate from 1930 to 1945 (Cerdin and Peretti, 2001). In 2008, 83 percent of the working population was between the ages of 25 and 54 (INSEE, 2009). These numbers can be explained by the delayed entrance of the young in the labour market and early retirement due to an increased early retirement policies since 1974 and the implementation of retirement at age 60 in 1982. Further distinctive characteristic of the French employment relations is its elitism. Barsoux and Lawrence (1997, p. 11) admit that France is a society characterised by a unitary elite. Complementary, Jackson (2002, p. 38) describes the educational system in France as being inegalitarian, discriminatory, and exclusive. The highest level of the education system is encompassed in the so-called grandes à ©coles. The grandes à ©coles, where managers are typically recruited from, typify an essential indication for a high potential which is regarded more important than the actual personal potential. Managers form part of a social elite, called cadre. Management itself is perceived more as a state of being in France and its development is related to the social and historical context (Beardwell and Claydon, 2007). The influence of the state on employment relations in France is considerable. EIROnline (2007) describes France as being known for its dirigiste type of economy or state-managed capitalism. Employment relation in France were not only influenced by the predominance of the state but also by the imbalance between labour characterised by more revolutionary socialists and employers being typified by paternalistic of reactionary views (Traxler and Huerner, 2007). Unions and Employee Representation Within Europe, France has two distinctive features: although it has the majority of trade unions, its membership rate is the lowest among the European countries (EUROnline, 2007; Ebbinghaus and Visser, 2000). Trade union coverage is higher in large enterprises than in small companies with highest coverage rate in the public sector. Sector or branch levels are the most common levels of trade union organisation (EIROnline, 2007). French trade union, other than union in rest of the European countries, do not offer collective services to its members, which partly may explain the low membership rate as well as the lack of need to benefit from a membership (Brewster et al., 2004). There are five major representative union confederations and employers are obliged to recognise them in case of at least one employee being an official representative of one of them (Scho, 2008). The five unions, which are considered representative at national level, regardless of the size of their membership, are summarised in the table below. Table 2 Trade Unions Source: EUROnline, 2007 All agreements met by the representative unions were for a long period considered legally effective. This fact permitted employers to legally implement an agreement even if it has been signed by just one minority union (Brewster et al., 2004). The Fillon Law of 2004 however widened the scope of this majority principle. French union show a further characteristic uncommon in Europe. Especially SMEs, who usually have no union representativeness, make use of the so-called mandating process. Introduced in October 1995 by a three-year national multi-sector agreement, the law especially aimed to encourage negotiations of small and non-union company agreements (Goetschy and Jobert, 2004). The purpose behind the involvement of non-representatives was to increase the typically low membership rate of French unions. For instance, about one-third of collective agreement accompanying the 35-hour-week law application were signed by mandated workers (Pedersini, 2010). Employees representation in French companies has rather a complex structure and is incorporated in several representative bodies at the enterprise level (Goetschy and Jobert, 2004). The four major players are: Table 2 Employee Representation Workforce delegates (dà ©là ©guà ©s du personnel) Workforce delegates are mandatory for companies with 10 or more employees. Elected by all employees, the delegates are representatives of employees for individual or collective concern to the management. Work council (comità © dentreprise) Work council is mandatory for companies with 50 or more employees. Elected by all employees and representatives of trade unions, the council has a consultative role about the decisions of the employer. Furthermore, it is concerns with allocating funds for social and cultural facilities for employees. Workplace Health and Safety committee (Comità © dHygià ¨ne, de Sà ©curità ©, et des Conditions de Travail) The committee is compulsory for all companies with more than 50 employees. It includes head of the company plus employee representatives and has a consultative role about working conditions. Trade union delegates Every representative union is given the right for a delegate in a company with at least 50 employees who besides representing their unions also represent employees. Source: Brewster et al, 2004 Federations of Employers Employer representation stands in sharp contrast to the employee representation. Indeed, three out of four employers are represented in an employer organisation (EUROnline, 2007). The major association is the MEDEF (Mouvement des Entreprises de France), former CNPF (Conseil National du Patronat Franà §ais). It has a multi-layered structure consisting of various sectoral and territorial organisations (Traxler and Huerner, 2007). MEDEF, founded in 1998, brings together all companies with at least 10 employees. Despite this official purpose, MEDEF also includes several smaller companies. It directly organises 87 federations that cover about 600 associations and 165 regional organisations (EUROnline, 2007). The membership in MEDEF is covered by about 750,000 companies and 15 million employees from all sectors except agriculture and certain service professions (Traxler and Huerner, 2007). The SMEs are represented by the CGPME (Confà ©dà ©ration gà ©nà ©rale du patronat des petites et moyennes entreprises), and self-employed artisans by the UPA (Union Professionnelle Artisanale) (EUROnline, 2007). The State The French state is not only a major player in employment relations but also plays an essential role as an employer. As already mentioned, despite some privatisations, the government still remains prevailing in some sectors. Furthermore, Ruysseveldt et al. (1995) stresses that French state is typified for having its intervention in employment relations which are typically subject of collective bargaining by incorporating these issues in law. The intervention of the state is for instance given through the requirement for company-level negotiations, legal extension of collective agreements, and determination of minimum wage. Therefore, almost 90 percent of employees are covered by agreements securing at least minimum standards, despite the low union membership and a decentralized bargaining system (Ebbinghaus, 2004). For instance, the minimum wage (SMIC), a cross-sector minimum wage, is defined by legislation, involving all employees. Collective bargaining is also used to set branch-level minimum wages which however, are usually lower than the SMIC (EIROnline, 2007). Finally, the French state played an important role in the development of French employment relations as demonstrated in the following chapters. Collective Bargaining and Employee Participation Collective agreement forms an important part of negotiations between the law and the individual work contracts. Within Europe, France distinguishes itself from other countries by not attributing collective agreement as a central element of employment relations (Traxler and Huerner, 2007). The characteristics of the bargaining system have been extensively shaped by successive pieces of legislation (Goetschy, 1998, p. 358) and thus intensive state intervention. Collective agreements face further obstacles. Traxler and Huerner (2007, p.126) point out that there is a lack of shared identity among the unions and the employees who do not feel bound by the decisions taken by the representative unions. Andolfatto and Labbà © (2006) observe a similar dilemma for the employers and the associations. According to Schmidt (2006, p.121) policies are designed without the systematic input from societal actors, but actors are subsequently accommodated in a rather flexible implementation process, oft en based on derogation from the law. The bargaining structure in France is pyramidal and statute law is decisive. After the abolishment of the favourability principle (principe de faveur), decentralised levels are given autonomy on certain issues as long as the law is respected (plancher legal) (Euronline, 2007). National-level agreements are less frequently used than lower level agreements. Company-levels negotiations gained on importance in the field of wages and working hours which was further encouraged by the Fillion Law (2004) and Aubrey Law (1998/2000/2002). Development since 1980s Before 1980s, employment relations in France were characterised by ideological confrontation between the revolutionary labour movement and collective bargaining-aversive employers (Hoang Ngoc and Lallement, 1994) and collective bargaining particularly took place on the industry level (Goetschy and Jobert, 2004). The 1980s brought a significant move towards decentralisation with a Socialists government that supported collective bargaining in terms of politics and laws. Throughout the 1980s various company-level institutions and practices evolved which enabled negotiation of economic reforms and which tried to limit private sector industrial conflicts (Howell, 2006). The reforms were accompanied by a state intervention that sought to support workplace flexibility negotiations. Although the state experienced varying governments (Left and Right), it pursued equal objectives which underlying strategy was to create legal obligations within companies to establish self-sustaining social dial ogues which again lead to a deregulation of the labour market. One of the major legislation pieces of the 1980s was the Auroux Report (1981) which contributed mainly to a higher involvement of employees into the company and sought to bring unions and companies closer together (Hoang Ngoc and Lallement, 1994). Focusing on collective bargaining as a keystone in the reform, Auroux created an obligations for employers and unions for regular negotiations at industry as well as company level (Eaton, 2000). This reform introduced more balance between the state and collective bargaining as it put more emphasis on bargaining than on the law itself (Goetschy and Jobert, 2004). In 1987 collective bargaining made further steps towards decentralisation. From then on company-level negotiations were freed from any linkage with a sectoral agreement, and annualisation and more flexible opening was allowed without reducing working hours. In the 1990s multi-industry bargaining gained on importance after its decline during the 70s and 80s. It was supported by government, as well as employers (by CNPF) and unions (by CFDT) who were aiming at a consensus approach towards the modernisation of French companies (Howell, 2006). Enormous emphasis of multi-industry bargaining was put on the training that became a mandatory part of collective bargaining (Goetschy and Jobert, 2004). Further significant issue throughout the 1990s was the restructuring of the employee representation within the enterprise. According to Howell (2006, p.169) French companies experienced transformations that had the effect of deepening and broadening the construction of a set of firm-level institutions that regularised social dialogue with largely non-union employee representatives. Worth mentioning is also the agreement on the articulation of bargaining levels and the possibility of negotiations in companies without union representatives (1995) which brought two main transformations for collective bargaining. First, the hierarchical level of the three bargaining levels (multi-industry, industry, company) became more complementary. Second, the absence of union delegate gave the elected employee representative and the employees mandated by unions the authority to sign company agreements. Again in 2000s employment relations development signalised the trend towards more decentralised collective bargaining and a state which exercised restraint in the social dialogue of the labour market. This intention was implemented through the Gà ©nisson Law (2001) which made bargaining on equality compulsory at company level (annually) and sectoral level (every three years) (Gregory and Milner, 2009). The 2003 Fillon law encouraged the move towards company-level negotiation about wages and reduced working time by accepting derogation agreements. In July 2008 new law on social democracy and working time reform set new measures for the representativeness of trade unions, especially by removing the irrefragable presumption of representativeness and making representativeness dependent on the results of the workplace elections (Boulon, 2008). Concluding, the last decades were characterised by various developments in French industrial relations. Despite frequent changes of government, France has experienced a high degree of consistency in the direction of employment relations reforms (Howell, 2006). High level collective bargaining shifted towards more decentralisation aiming more at the company-level while the labour market and workplace experienced greater flexibility. Nevertheless, these developments were not simply accompanied by the distancing of the state from industrial relations, leaving the field to labour and unions. On the contrary, providing the social actors with company-level bargaining and agreements, developments were initiated and controlled by the state. Self-sustaining bargaining never took place (Lallement and Mà ©riaux, 2003). Thus the state reforms were still shaping the areas of social relations. Finally, Jefferys (2003, p. 128) states the state remains at the heart of the organisation of relations between capital and French labour. Major Trends in Employment Relations The Aubrey Law France faced the most bargaining activity over working time reduction in the late 1990s and early 2000s, driven by legislation reducing the working week from 39 to 35 hours. The so-called Aubrey law, named after Martine Aubry (minister who introduced the legislation), was the sixth law in seventeen years which has an impact on the working time (Jefferys, 2000). The 35-hour week was the flagship policy of Socialist Jospins (1997-2002) plural-left coalition government (Hayden, 2006, p. 505). The main purpose of the law implicated the reduction of the working time from 39 to 35 hours by offering financial incentives to companies that used collective agreements for the creation and protection of jobs while reducing the working time (Jefferys, 2000). Using this law, the government also had the ambition to encourage the social partners to participate more actively in the law-making process (Jefferys, 2000). The legislation which began with a framework law in 1998 resulted in a three-steps process (Levy, 2006): the first law introduced in 1998 provided the terms for voluntary work time agreements; in 2000, a second Aubrey law made work time reduction mandatory for companies who failed to reach agreements employing 20 or more workers; the third law, for 2002, which aimed at extension of this legislation to smaller firms, failed when the Left was replaced by the new conservative government. First Aubrey Law (1998/1999) Aubrey I introduced a variety of ways for the reduction of working time, including annualisation of hours, extended vacation periods, and a shorter working week. The companies were given increased flexibility in the creation of work time with the essential requirement for collective bargaining (Supiot, 2001, p. 92). Social costs reliefs were promised to those companies that quickly negotiated the reduction in working hours and created or preserved jobs. Nevertheless, the collective agreements reached under Aubrey I proved that employers put special emphasis on the flexibility in work time reduction left to them rather than on the incentives linked to the implementation (Levy, 2006). The 1999 law addressed the issue of trade union representativeness (Jefferys, 2000). From then on the social costs reliefs were only made available to those agreements met by union representing the majority of the work-force. Minority agreements were only accepted if ratified by entire work-force referendum, nevertheless the benefits of the reduced charges were not forwarded to these agreements (Howell, 2006). Smaller firms that lack a representation of unions could benefit from the legislation through the mandating process allowing them to sign company-level agreements. Without the mandating procedure agreements became legal with the confirmation of a majority of employees and local labour-business commission. Second Aubrey Law (2000) On 19th of January 2000, the Aubrey II came into effect reducing the working week from 39 to 35 hours for all enterprises with more than 20 employees. Due to the high attention paid to the flexibility in the implementation of work-time reduction, the second law provided more innovations in this area still with the prerequisite of a collective agreement. The lack of collective agreement meant less flexibility in options for work time reduction. According to Howell (2006) without a collective agreement, the reduction in work time had to be on a monthly or weekly basis, but with an agreement there were a range of other options, including annualisation, a wage increase offset against overtime, additional days off and so on. (p. 148) The law therefore aimed at the encouragement of the dialogue between social partners. Work time reduction was completed on two levels. Before Aubrey II, company-level agreements were predominant, while after year 2000 branch-level agreements became more common. Outcomes The in beginning much discussed and controversial legislation has survived. Though when the Left gave over to the Right government in 2002, the extension for small firms planned in that year was blocked. Furthermore, certain adjustments like extension of the allowable overtime have been adopted. Various studies about the implementation of the laws, inter alia conducted by the Ministerial Office of Employment and Solidarity (completed mainly between 1998 and 1999), provided following results (Neumann, 2004): On the employee side, within a year on the first law, in 69 of the 180 bargaining sectors, at least one of the representative national union has signed framework agreements covering 8.3 million workers About 300.000 new jobs (out of 1,65 mio) were created which were assigned to the relaxation of the social costs and the reduction of working hours of the law By the implication of the legislation in September 2002, almost half of the employed people were influenced by the Aubrey law Critical evaluation The significance of the Audrey Laws does not lie in the actual reduction in the working time. Its essence are the wide-ranging consequences on the employment relations in France. For the Jospin government the law provided an opportunity to try to use the basic sympathy of the French electorate with the idea of shorter working hours to encourage the organised decentralisation of collective bargaining (Traxler 1994, p. 184-86). The laws abolished many constraints on temporal flexibility and shifted the emphasis of collective bargaining towards the company-level. Some of the various advantages provided by the Aubrey law affect collective bargaining and work reorganisation. The company-level collective bargaining was influenced tremendously by the legislation. While after 1998 the rate of agreements signed increased by estimated 15,000 per year, after 1999, when the law became mandatory, agreements number increased by 35,000 a year (Howell, 2006). The financial incentives provided by the Aubrey laws were attached the condition to agree on work time reduction by a collective bargaining. Consequently, this collective agreement offered more options and flexibility for work time reduction to the firms, thus leading to work reorganisation. Many experiments which were made in this area including recalculation of the work time, work shift, and adoption to the market requirements, proved to be advantageous for some companies. Additionally, annualisation became very popular supplying companies with enormous flexibility in the work time reductions. Despite these advantages the Aubrey laws was met with mingled feelings from the social actors. The legislation was considered an attack on entrepreneurs, a triumph of ideology over reason, and even economic suicide (Hayden, 2006). Still, with the change of the government in 2002 the legislation has not been abolished, although it experienced substantial criticism. Instead, the Right provided more relaxation and greater flexibility introduced by the Fillon Laws 2003 and 2004 indicating that the effects of the Aubrey laws were less harmful than illustrated by critics. On the contrary, a study conducted by IMF in November 2006 (Estevà £o and Sà ¡, 2006), indicated that the legislation appeared to have a rather negative effect as it failed to create more jobs and negatively influenced employers and employees as they tried to neutralise the laws effect on hours of work and monthly wages. The major concerns were raised by the employers. CNPF became MEDEF in October 1998 under the pressure from French firms for a more aggressive political position (Jefferys, 2000). One year later, in October 1999, a protest with 25000 people against the second law followed. In November, MEDEF threatened to pull out of the bipartite national unemployment benefit scheme if the government make use of UNEDIC (Union nationale interprofessionnelle pour lemploi dans lindustrie et le commerce) the National Union Interprofessional for Employment in Industry and Trade agency of the French government which provided unemployed people with social benefits, to subsidise state incentives to reduce working time (Jefferys, 2000). Additionally, by creating a financial disincentive in case of overtime, the 35-hour-week legislation forced employers to undergo a more fundamental reorganisation of work (Howell, 2006). From the employees perspective, the law could be viewed ambiguously as a liberator and job creator or as a mechanism for introducing asocial work schedules (Bouffartigue, 1997, p. 256). Tensions on the company-level were illustrated for instance by the Peugeot-Citroen strikes, when the Saturday was introduced as a compulsory working day. Additionally, concerns arose about the decrease in wage level, although employees were promised to not be disadvantaged regarding income reductions which was supported by the unions slogan 35 hours pays 39 (Estevà £o and Sà ¡, 2006). The question about the representativeness of those who signed the agreement also forms a part of criticism of the legislation. As mentioned several times, the mandating process can be used by all firms with a lack of union representativeness. The mandating process prevailed in the company-levels agreements (70% in 2001), predominantly by smaller companies (Howell, 2006). Nevertheless, this process failed to recruit more members to unions. Finally, the Aubrey laws can be considered to be an oxymoron. In times of globalisation and extensive pressures on firms to stay competitive, France is trying to improve its competitiveness and decrease unemployment by reducing the working time. The work-sharing logic did not fit in this time when the unemployment rate amounted to nearly 10 percent and an average full-time working week was almost 43 hours (INSEE, 2010). There arises the question what the government could have done better. After considering the development of the employment relations in France, the trend of decentralisation should be pursued more constantly. State intervention should be reduced to give the social partners the possibility to develop and implement own methods for the work time reduction as the legislation did not match appropriately the needs of all French companies. Especially, the smaller companies who suffered from the law and feared to lose their competitiveness, should be better integrated and left more power and flexibility to adopt the legislation. Therefore, although the employers were gradually given more flexibility it still was embedded in frameworks which convey an impression of regulated deregulation once again demonstrating the predominant position of the French state. Other Major Trends Collective Bargaining Reform One of the significant changes to the industrial relations system took place in 2004 with the implementation of the Fillon law. The law brought two major changes into collective bargaining. The favourability principle (principe de faveur), where agreements from lower and higher levels may deviate from each other if it more advantageous for the employees concerned, was relaxed for certain cases (e.g. working time) (OECD, 2005). The favourability principle has been retained for minimum wages, job classifications, supplementary social protection measures and multi-company and cross-sector vocational training funds (EIRR, 2006). The other change concerned the approval of agreements. Hitherto, an agreement has been valid even if it had been signed by only one trade union with representative status. The new law widened the scope of the majority principle, the application of which depends on the level of negotiations. Individual Right to Training in France In September 2003 a national cross-sectoral agreement on employees lifelong access to training was concluded, approved by all five representative unions (Vincent, 2003). The law promotes individual training rights for employees while putting its focus on sectoral negotiations. Labour Market Modernisation In January 2008, a step towards French flexicurity has been made by the agreement on the modernisation of the labour market. It provides more flexibility on issues like recruitment and termination of employment at the same time maintaining certain employee rights in term of termination (Lefresne, 2008). Conclusion In conclusion, employment relation in France can be described as developing towards decentralisation and more flexibility to the advantage of business and labour. Although, the state is taking distance from intervention in the economy, it remains the predominant character in the regulation of social relations.

Development During Adolescence :: Human Development Teenagers Essays

Adolescence is the developmental stage between childhood and adulthood; it generally refers to a period ranging from age 12 or 13 through age 19 or 21. Although its beginning is often balanced with the beginning of puberty, adolescence is characterized by psychological and social stages as well as by biological changes. Adolescence can be prolonged, brief, or virtually nonexistent, depending on the type of culture in which it occurs. In societies that are simple, for example, the transition from childhood to adulthood tends to occur rather rapidly, and is marked by traditionally prescribed passage rites. to contrast this, American and European societies the transition period for young people has been steadily lengthening over the past 100 years, giving rise to an adolescent subculture. As a result of this prolonged transitional stage a variety of problems and concerns specifically associated with this age group have developed. Psychologists single out four areas that especially touch upon adolescent behavior and development: physiological change and growth; cognitive, or mental development; identity, or personality formation; and parent-adolescent relations. Physiological Change: Between the ages of 9 and 15, almost all young people undergo a rapid series of physiological changes, known as the adolescent growth spurt. These hormonal changes include an acceleration in the body's growth rate; the development of pubic hair; the appearance of axillary, or armpit, hair about two years later. There are changes in the structure and functioning of the reproductive organs; the mammary glands in girls; and development of the sweat glands, which often leads to an outbreak of acne. In both sexes, these physiological changes occur at different times. This period of change can prove to be very stressful for a pre-teen. For during this stage of life appearance is very important. An adolescent child who develops very early or extremely late can take a lot of ridicule from his or her peers. However, the time at which a girl goes through this stage and a male goes through it are different. Girls typically begin their growth spurt shortly after age 10. They tend to reach their peak around the age 12, and tend to finish by age 14. This spurt occurs almost two years later in boys. Therefore boys go through a troubling period where girls are taller and heavier than them. This awkward period occurs from ages ten and one-half to thirteen. Time is not the only difference in the pubescent period for boys and girls. In girls, the enlargement of the breasts is usually the first physical

Justice in Henry David Thoreau’s Civil Disobedience Essay -- essays re

Justice Henry David Thoreau’s Civil Disobedience By definition justice means the quality of being just or fair. The issue then stands, is justice fair for everyone? Justice is the administration of law, the act of determining rights and assigning rewards or punishments, "justice deferred is justice denied.† The terms of Justice is brought up in Henry David Thoreau’s writing, â€Å"Civil Disobedience.† Justice has different standards for every group that it is presented upon. Thoreau’s opinions and criticism is strongly stated. Henry David Thoreau (1817-1862) was described as many things. Thoreau was an author and naturalist with very Republican views. Morals inspired him. He ties in morality with justice many times in his piece. He was as well a pacifist, who was more talk than action. He was an abolitionist who sought justice for minorities. They didn’t have the ability to defend themselves. In Thoreau’s view, he felt that the government was insufficient. He didn’t need the laws to be just, he used his conscious and morality. He was compelled to do what morally was right, rather than it being based on government issued laws such as the complacent society there is today. People seem to care about justice, yet are immoral. This was the message Thoreau was trying to get across. Through all these wildly changing times, are we the people also changing? Is the generation gap a myth or can it be sustained? In evaluation of Henry David Thoreau’s â€Å"Civil Disobedience† essay, the answer to this is a resounding no. Thoreau opposed the war with Mexico in 1847 just like Jane Fonda opposed the Vietnam War more than 100 years later. Thoreau’s anti-war sentiment has been repeated in nearly every generation since the founding of this countr... ...for him to do). Instead Thoreau believes that as unjust and imperfect as democracy is at that particular time, he looks to better times, a time when legislators have more wisdom and integrity and hold humanity in a higher regard. He recognizes that fairness exists in the hearts and minds of individuals, some whom he knows personally and he holds to a hope that men like these can and will transform what is in their conscience into a â€Å"state at last which can afford to be just to all men and to treat the individual with respect†¦Ã¢â‚¬  In Thoreau’s view, he felt that the government was insufficient. At times such as these, government may not always be the best way to turn, yet it provides guidelines. This theme in his essay is just another opinion. Justice cannot be fully defined in one sentence by every person. It depends on the background and the experiences one has had.