In what ways did the dual Kingship of Sparta reflect (or perpetuate) other aspects of Spartan society Essay Example

In what ways did the dual Kingship of Sparta reflect (or perpetuate) other aspects of Spartan society Essay Sparta, as countless others scholars have noted, was a world apart from the other poleis in Ancient Greece in its customs. It was one of the few poleis to retain a Kingship, and as doubly odd to have had a Dyarchy two Kings reigning simultaneously, one each from the Agiad and Eurypontid lines respectively. Is it possible, in fact, that this strange royal partnership reflected and maybe even in some way fuelled the peculiar habits of Lacedaemonian society? I wish to explore the nature of the Kings role in the Spartan constitution, their role in Spartan religion and their powers commanding the army. I will also explore their role in diplomacy. The concept that we have of archaic monarchs (in this case, dyarchs), especially many of those during the Hellenistic era (like Phillip II Alexander I of Macedon, the Great Kings of Persia and later on into history) is that of absolute control and to check that power. In Sparta, it was a very different affair (Cartledge, 1987: 17; 2001: 57). Perhaps a very basic point, but something that reflected the overall ethos of Laconian society was the deemed seniority of the Agiad line (Hdt. 6. 51; Cartledge, 1987: 23, 100). This echoed throughout Spartan society; where the Spartan youth were tutored to obey their elders. The two Kings were overseen (literally MacDowell, 1986: 128) by Ephors and laws were passed by the Gerousia (which they were at least part of). It is quite plausible that over the centuries, before the advent of Ephors, the constitutional powers of the Kings were much greater (MacDowell, 1986: 123). For example, by the mid 5th century, we know that judicially, the Kings judged cases involving unmarried heiresses, adoptions and public roads (Herodotus, 6.57. 4/5). Indeed, the constantly fluctuating relationship between the Ephors Gerousia with the Kings is something worth investigating. In theory, the Ephorate was established to prolong the royal crowns (Cartledge, 2001: 33), with both of them exchanging vows to each other monthly to act within the law (Xen. Lac. Pol. 15.7). But there were instances where ulterior motives on either side came to the fore. Pausanias tells us that when a King committed a misdemeanour and was to be tried back home, the judges included the other governing arms the Ephors and the Gerousia, the latter including the other king (Paus, 3.5.2); Cleomenes was exiled for trying to dismiss the Athenian boule (Yates, 2005: 75/6). However, it is quite possible that this was a special case, regarding the trial of Pausanias (MacDowell, 1986, 128, Cartledge, 1987: 109). We will write a custom essay sample on In what ways did the dual Kingship of Sparta reflect (or perpetuate) other aspects of Spartan society specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on In what ways did the dual Kingship of Sparta reflect (or perpetuate) other aspects of Spartan society specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on In what ways did the dual Kingship of Sparta reflect (or perpetuate) other aspects of Spartan society specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We also hear of the Ephors conducting a ritual sky watch once every 8 years, searching for bad omens which they could use against the kings rule (Rahe, 1977: 278-9, no. 145). Not only does this show a cautious approach from them towards the dyarchs, but the ritual itself fits very neatly with the religious aspect (page 6) of the kings themselves; they could be impeached by the gods. Ste. Croix goes further, categorising the trials and banishments of the Kings in the 5th 4th centuries as the work of the Ephors (1972: 350-3; Rahe, 1980: 398). Pleistoanaxs actions in Attica (446-5 BC) led him to being put on trial and exiled, and this may well have been due to the report of the Ephor(s) accompanying him on the campaign (Cartledge, 1987: 17). It might well have been that his peace with Athens was not popular with the Gerousia and Ephors, ably demonstrated by the violation of his peace (Cartledge, 1982: 261/2). This would also show the inherent hostility towards Athens in Spartan society . Yet, there are instances where the balance is reversed and the ephors were used as an advisory board of sorts. Cleomenes I went to the ephors in order to inform them about the suspicious activities of Mnaiandrios of Samos (Hdt. 3.148.2). We also hear from Xenophon that King (regent) Pausanias managed to convince three Ephors to take military action (Xen. Hell. 2.4.29), though this would have been different for other judicial decisions (MacDowell, 1986: 131). There is also the instance where Agesilaos managed to take drastic action and execute conspirators after consulting the ephors (Plutarch, Agesilaos. 32. 11). The Ephors were liable to manipulation from wily Kings (Brunt, 1965: 279). Despite being put in place to check the power of the Kings, it is likely that the Ephors werent indicative of popular representation within Sparta, being as they were, just 5 citizens elected from the damos (Aristotle, Pol. 1256b39-40) and holding office for only a year. Individual Ephors might well have exploited disagreements between Kings to their own advantage (Cartledge, 2001: 59), but split voting, change of policy with new Ephors and disagreements would have put pay to any personal ambitions. Moreover, the Kingship remained the principal office for which true political power remained, as the Machiavellian scheming of Lysander attests to (Cartledge, 2001: 36). What this shows is the willing subservience of Spartan society to adhere to their rigid hierarchy of royal dominance, and that the downfall of a King would be the reluctant last solution, if it would save the Lacedaemonians from doom. Let us take the example of a King being indicted (see above). If a charge against a King was to be upheld, it was necessary for all the Ephors and the majority of the Gerousia with the other King to vote against said King on trial (Cartledge, 2001: 60). If the King was summoned by the Ephors, he was only required to do so upon the third time of asking (Cartledge, 2001: 62). In Agesilaos IIs case, he hobbled. The Spartans despised physical disability but since Agesilaos was King; this must have been overlooked because of his status, again reflecting submission to ones betters. We should also note that in the presence of a King, everyone else had to stand. As Cartledge picks up upon, this mirrored the Spartan ideal whereby juniors were expected to give up their seat to a senior (2001: 62) and probably also the deferral to ones superiors as well (Kelly, 1981: 48). As for the Gerousia, Cartledge argues that it might well have been as old as the Kingship itself, but its size and the inclusion of the 2 Kings (If a king was away, then his vote was given to another, who would vote for him and himself (Thuc. 1.20.3) thus conforming to the rest of the Gerousia) within it reflect a change in status of the Dyarchy, to the advantage of the Gerousia (2001: 31). He also argues that the Gerousia was the main domestic and foreign decision making body (2001: 60) made from the senior, aristocratic Spartiates (however, as the Kings were ex officio members, it is possible that the Kings could have been the youngest faces within the Gerousia, disagreeing with the superiority of the elders (Pleistarchus and Agis IV McQueen, 1990: 167)). If this is the case, then a long reigning King would have been able to see the Gerousia membership appointed in his favour (by his own admission: Cartledge, 2001: 65). Agesilaos IIs vote to save Sphodrias in the trial of 378 is a good indication of his control over the Gerousia. So it is a good bet that the Kings were the political foci (Mitchell, 1991: 58; despite Lewis, 1977: 48; Hdt. 6.52.8). Far from the nature of the Dyarchys role within the government of Sparta, we can tell a lot about how much they mirrored Spartan society from their day to day lives within the polis. The Kings would both eat in the Royal mess tents (syssitia), which the homioi were separated from, promoting the idea that the Royals were something else (Cartledge, 1987: 104). Whats more, the Kings were awarded double rations so as to honour guests (Cartledge, 1987: 108; Xen. Ages. 5.1; Lak. Pol. 15.4) and we can presume that this was used as part of the xenia process. The mess tents the homioi used were subject to control of membership, along grounds of social, wealth and seniority status (Hodkinson, 1983: 253/4), thus promoting the oligarchic fashion of Sparta. That the Kings were kept separate heightens this idea. In terms of property, it was very much a case of furthering ones own ambitions (Leonidas in Plut. Kleo. 1.1) and keeping property within their family by literally doing just that marrying close consanguineous kin or similarly wealthy aristocrats (Hodkinson, 2000: 82, 408). This was done by the Kings and aristocrats alike. In the cases where they judged adoption, the Kings would make sure that the adopted was landless and would pass them onto those who were the same, thus allowing them to keep the properties in the upper echelons of society (Hodkinson, 2000: 82). The royal houses were typical of Spartan propertied classes. Good examples of this would be Leonidas Is marriage to Gorgo, Cleomenes Is only child so as to inherit Cleomenes property when he died as well as bolster his claim to the Agiad throne (Hdt. 7.239.4), Cleomenes IIIs marriage to Agiatis, the widow of Agis IV (Hdt. 6.71), Ariston marrying his friends wife (Hdt. 6.61-2) and Aegisilaos Is marriage to Kleora (Paus. 3.9.3). We should however note that the Agiad Eurypontid royal lines owned considerably more land than any other citizen as they possessed territories in many perioikic communities (Xen. Lak. Pol. 15.3). Though they imitated the attitude of the wealthy few in Sparta by such a process, it limited the number of heirs and the division of inheritance, concentrating the property and wealth in the hands of the closely related few; wealth married wealth, segregating society even further. The royal houses enhanced their socio-economic position over history through such activities (Hodkinson, 2000: 413). As the elites perpetuated their position, the decline in citizen numbers accelerated, allowing the successful aristocratic lineages to safely secure high offices and property (Hodkinson, 2000: 415). This in turn would have lead to policy-making being dominated by very few, not least between the 2 Kings and their respective supporters in the Gerousia (Roy, 2009: 442). Religion was integral part of Spartan life, like most other Classical poleis. In Sparta, the Kings had an important part to play. We learn from Herodotus (6.59) that both Kings were hereditary high priests of Zeus Lakedaimonios and Zeus Ouranios (perhaps one for each). As such, they were required to sacrifice to Zeus and others before, during and after a military campaign (Lipka, 2002: 221). Whilst marching, the Kings preceded the fire-bearers, whilst a train of sacrificial animals followed behind the army (Burket, 1985: 257). The representation of Castor and Polydeukes was taken on military campaigns (Cartledge, 1987: 109). They ate first and received twice as large a portion as everyone else at sacrificial feasts (Cartledge, 1987: 107). The Kings received 72 litres of barley and a quart of wine every new moon and on the 7th day of the lunar month (Lipka, 2002: 221). Lastly, no-one was permitted to touch the Kings (Plut. Agis. 19.9). They were probably not God-Kings, but more than mortal (Miller, 1998: 2). It is clear that the health of the state was bound to the health of the Kings (Cartledge, 1987: 105; Parker, 1988: 153). The fact that the Kings were apportioned the skins and entrails of the sacrifices shows the high esteem they were held in by the Religious community. As Sparta was an extremely superstitious and seriously religious community, it certainly seems consistent that the Kings were assigned such duties. They were also given the honour of appointing two Pythioi each, who acted permanent ambassadors to Oracle at Delphi (Hdt. 6.57.2-4), the highest honour, presumably as Delphi was the pan-Hellenic sanctuary! Lysanders attempted bribery of Delphi reflects the entrenched power the kings had, since they maintained a close relationship with Delphi through their Pythioi (Cartledge, 1987: 96), maybe even to further their own agenda (Cartledge, 2001: 63). Royal funerals on the other hand, were perhaps the most spectacular in the Peloponnese (Hdt. 6.58), which would have been in sharp contrast with the simplicities (Laconic) of ordinary Spartans (Parker, 1988: 153), and it would have had an impact upon the members of the royal house (Hodkinson, 2000: 263). Each free household (Spartiate and Perioikic) had to provide one male and female each to the funeral; Helots were obliged to attend (reflecting Spartan societys dominance over them (Cartledge, 1987: 333)). The funeral would have been a public affair, lying-in-state, reflecting the very Spartan practice; other cities kept their funerals as private affairs (Cartledge, 1987: 333). Again, unlike anywhere else in Greece, the King would have been buried within the boundaries of the living, maybe even close to a sanctuary, defying the Hellenic taboo of Greek pollution (Plut. Lyc. 27.1). It is interesting to notice that the custom of embalming their King was copied from Persian and Egyptian practices (Hdt. 1.40.2, 4.71.1), which is seemingly at odds with their xenophobia towards foreign cultures. Leonidas I, who died in battle may well have had an exceptional burial (buried again after his demise 40 years earlier), sharing a similar Spartan trait of honouring only those who died fighting (Cartledge, 1987: 336). The royal funeral was beyond what a mere mortal man could claim and what many aristocrats aspired to (Xen. Hell. 3.3.1), thus convincing the Spartiates of the connection between a healthy Sparta and the dual Kingship (though this would become less and less effective in later Sparta (Cartledge, 1987: 337/341)). For Spartans, soldering was their life. However, unlike the homioi, the heirs to the thrones were not required to go through the Spartan education system the agoge (Plut. Ages. 1.4). This does seem strange initially, but when you consider how the Kings were perceived as beyond mortal (see above), the heirs and Kings were already superior to everyone else (Cartledge, 1987: 24). Agesilaos IIs decision to go through the agoge would naturally have made him even more special, considering his disability; just like Leonidas before him. Herodotus tells us (5.75.2) that because of a crisis between Cleomenes and Damaratus on a joint campaign in 506 BC, one King stayed behind in Sparta. The King elected on campaign assumed sole command on campaign, handling an enormous amount of power; anyone who tried to prevent this would be cursed (Cartledge, 1987: 81, 105). He was even assigned his own bodyguard (hippeis) who were the elite soldiers (Thuc. 5.72.4). The King could also expect a personal haul of a third of the total booty collected on campaign (Polybius. 2.62.1). Aristotle (Pol. 1285a 7-8, 1285b 26-8) inferred that the Kings were mere hereditary generals, but as we can see, that was patently not the case. Their power was absolute (they even had the authority to choose between life and death (MacDowell, 1986: 126). With the King at the head of an army, the connection between the military and the political hierarchy was plain to see. Leadership went hand in hand with the military caste (Cartledge, 1987: 203). To lead the army in a military orientated state like Sparta would surely have been the greatest honour. This echoes what was said earlier (page 4), about having to submit to ones betters, especially in Sparta, replicating the master/student, senior/junior, rich/poor relationship in all of Spartan society. The Lacedaemonians were subject to the power of the Ephors, Gerousia and the Dyarchy at home, yet outside Sparta, it became a Monarchy. I feel this could be due to the way the Spartiates perceived non-Spartiates. As they distrusted foreigners, they needed to be, in theory, intimidated. So, one King with full power and a large army would have done this perfectly and was indicative of Spartas xenophobia. Where it was a matter of gaining advantage for Lacedaemon, the Spartan elites did engage with those from the outside (of Sparta). The Kings were allowed to appoint proxenia, Spartiates who acted as ambassadors for those from other poleis (Hdt. 6.57.2). This was certainly related to Spartas xenophobia (cf. Figueira, 2003: 66), where the only ones who were entrusted to make relations with non-Spartiates were those trusted by the Kings, and was thus open to manipulation (Cartledge, 1987: 81, 97, 108). No doubt, the Spartan kings would already have had friendship ties (xenia) with many Peloponnesian oligarchies, thus enabling them to influence foreign policy in those states (Cartledge, 1987: 246). King Agis II was fined for negotiating with Argives (Thuc. 5.59-63), one was a Spartan proxenos and another had xenos with Agis himself (Hodkinson, 2000: 352; Roy, 2009: 440). Archidamus had terms of xenia with Pericles of Athens (Thuc. 2.13.1; Mosely, 1971: 434). The relationships the Kings had with their friends in the Peloponnese is reminiscent of the 18th 19th century European Monarchs, who retained ties of blood and friendship with each other. In what ways did the Dyarchs reflect other aspects of Spartan society? Though they were designed to prevent it, the Kings dominated both of the Ephors and Gerousia, reflecting the superior/inferior (master/slave) aspect of Sparta as a whole. Messing in the syssitia and the accumulation of property through marrying close kin or wealthy others promoted the oligarchic fashion (ruled by the few (in this case 2!)). The Kings as high priests and their spectacular funerals cemented their demi-god credentials; it fitted perfectly with the zealously religious Spartans. Leadership of the state was reflected by their leadership of the army and the Kings leading the peculiar form of Proxenia and xenos reflected the inherently xenophobic nature of Spartan society. The Dyarchy was coterminous with Sparta (Arist. Pol., 1310b 38-9), though it has been considered an egalitarian society, it was anything but, with competiveness instilled from youth (Kelly, 1981: 54). Sparta demanded high reverence to the continued influence of the Spartan Kings (Rice, 1974: 165) and time passed, the un-checked power of the Kings fostered Hellenistic monarchic tendencies in later kings (McQueen, 1990: 166). The dual Kinship promoted a dual image, where the Spartans promoted one thing, but did another (Miller, 1998: 13).

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The story  ³A Worn Path, ² by Eudora Welty, tells the journey on foot of an elderly black women, Phoenix Jackson, from her home to the nearest town. She makes the journey to go to the doctor to get medicine for her sick grandson. On the trip, she runs into some trouble here and there with her dress getting caught in the underbrush and old age getting to her. She encounters a big dog that knocks her over, but is soon rescued by a passing hunter. As she gets to town, Phoenix asks a woman to her to help her tie her shoes then, proceeds to the doctor ¹s office. When she arrives there, her memory fails her and she forgets what her long trip was for. The light comes on and she remembers her grandson ¹s medicine. She gets the medicine and the money the nurse gives her, goes and buys a gift for her grandson and sets off for home. In this story, old age and class alienate Phoenix from society. Old age alienates Phoenix from a hunter she encounters on the trail. Age alienates Phoenix f rom the hunter when he assumes her age enables her to continue her trip to town. The hunter states,  ³Why, that ¹s too far! That ¹s as far as I walk when I come out myself and I get something for my trouble... Now you go home, Granny! ² (Welty, 215) By saying the trip is too far, the hunter shows he does not believe Phoenix can make it to town due her elderly age. When he says  ³... and I get something for my trouble ² (Welty, 215), the hunter infers that he feels Phoenix has no business being out there making the long trip, and there is no reason good enough for her to be venturing that far. The hunter alienates Phoenix because her age by telling her the trip is too far and calling her Granny. Class alienates Phoenix Jackson from the attendants in the doctor ¹s office. As Phoenix walks in the door one attendant says,  ³A charity case, I suppose ² (Welty, 216). Based on appearance alone, the attendant makes the assumption that she was a charity case.  ³A poignant sc... Free Essays on Worn Free Essays on Worn The story  ³A Worn Path, ² by Eudora Welty, tells the journey on foot of an elderly black women, Phoenix Jackson, from her home to the nearest town. She makes the journey to go to the doctor to get medicine for her sick grandson. On the trip, she runs into some trouble here and there with her dress getting caught in the underbrush and old age getting to her. She encounters a big dog that knocks her over, but is soon rescued by a passing hunter. As she gets to town, Phoenix asks a woman to her to help her tie her shoes then, proceeds to the doctor ¹s office. When she arrives there, her memory fails her and she forgets what her long trip was for. The light comes on and she remembers her grandson ¹s medicine. She gets the medicine and the money the nurse gives her, goes and buys a gift for her grandson and sets off for home. In this story, old age and class alienate Phoenix from society. Old age alienates Phoenix from a hunter she encounters on the trail. Age alienates Phoenix f rom the hunter when he assumes her age enables her to continue her trip to town. The hunter states,  ³Why, that ¹s too far! That ¹s as far as I walk when I come out myself and I get something for my trouble... Now you go home, Granny! ² (Welty, 215) By saying the trip is too far, the hunter shows he does not believe Phoenix can make it to town due her elderly age. When he says  ³... and I get something for my trouble ² (Welty, 215), the hunter infers that he feels Phoenix has no business being out there making the long trip, and there is no reason good enough for her to be venturing that far. The hunter alienates Phoenix because her age by telling her the trip is too far and calling her Granny. Class alienates Phoenix Jackson from the attendants in the doctor ¹s office. As Phoenix walks in the door one attendant says,  ³A charity case, I suppose ² (Welty, 216). Based on appearance alone, the attendant makes the assumption that she was a charity case.  ³A poignant sc...

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The 21st century has begun. What changes do you think this new century Essay

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There was a shift from Pickwickian syndrome to sleep aponea syndrome. In Pickwickian syndrome, the clinical symptoms like obesity, hypoventilation and plethoric face were highlighted while in sleep aponea syndrome Apnea/Hypoapnea Index became progressively more acceptable. The development of CPAP showed how on one hand patients actively participate in evolving health technology and on the other hand adjust and adapt to devices available according to their own needs and circumstances. In the studies of CPAP users the emphasis shifted on recognizing patients who are likely to discontinue to use these machines rather than blaming the patient for not using it. This led to looking at patient as a natural calculative subject who will do the cost-benefit analysis and decide whether to use health technology or not. This cost-benefit analysis is influenced by many psychological constructs like self identity, self- efficacy, self-confidence and social support, etc. On the basis of these calculations, by non-participation in certain health technologies, patients have created a new area of knowledge and intervention in biomedicine, health psychology, medical sociology and in sociology of science and technology. Thus medicalization of sleep has redefined the sleep as medically problematic and whole sleep industry has come up in last one decade or so. A person suffering from OSAS is no more stigmatized individual. He is no more powerless passive, dependent on medical personnel. He is a calculating independent person, an active consumer of health technology. Evolving the design of sleep machines showed that patient groups actively influence making of , evaluation and use of medical knowledge. Advantages Disadvantages of Medicalization According to Illich medicalisation has serious adverse impact on the society as the general public is made docile and reliant on the medical profession to help them cope with their life in their society. There is also structural problem as Western medicines notion of issues of healing, aging, and dying as medical illnesses. This effectively medicalises human life, rendering individuals and societies less able to deal with these natural processes. Marxists such as Vicente Navarro et.al. (1980) linked medicalization to an oppressive capitalist society. They argued that medicine makes people see health as an individual problem rather than looking at disease as a result of social inequality and poverty. It tends to strip subjects of their social context, so they come to be understood in terms of the prevailing biomedical ideology, resulting in a disregard for over-arching social causes such as unequal distribution of power and resources. Many critics believe that the term medicalization has become much more complex now as pharmaceutical companies have increasingly taken over the role of doctors, putting everyday problems into the domain of professional biomedicine. Direct to consumer advertising further undermines the role of doctors, as patients are encouraged to ask for particular drugs by name, thereby creating a conversation between consumer and drug company. Another problem with medicalization is that it puts the responsibility for the problem on individual causes and the solution to social problems on individual treatment. The psychologizing of social problems leads away from the analyses of the social structure of culture.For example, the reason for obesity is thought to be the obese person himself rather than the change in life style, socio-economic status of the person, easy availability and convenience of ready to eat junk food, etc.

Do College Students Deserve Alcohol? Essay examples -- Binge Drinking

As a college student I have to bring up a problem that has recently caught my eye. Drinking in the college environment has done much harm to the well-being of the students. The more I see drunken people around campus the more I become concerned for their safety. As I think about this more I start to question if we as body should be allowed to even possess alcohol, regardless of age. While alcohol incidents that include death are very seldom, many other categories have gone up; the number of binge drinkers-those who intend to drink to get drunk- has gone up, the number of Minor in Consumption tickets has gone up and the number of alcohol-related crimes has increased. With the full intent of ensuring the safety of my fellow students, I call for a realization in the evolution of the combination of alcohol and college as well as what harms this pact can produce. There is also the problem of how academics can be affected by drinking. If there is a problem academics which should be the fir st reason why any student should go to college, than this problem with should be fixed. Additionally, if there is a problem that affects a person’s safety, it also needs to be addressed. Alcohol has become a big part of college, as we all know. In The "Risky Business" of Binge Drinking Among College Students, author Joyce M. Wolburg gives many statistics about the harm that alcohol brings to college campuses. About five and a half billion dollars’ worth of alcohol is bought by college students annually, which is more than tuition, books, and rooms combined (Wolburg 24). It is one thing if we spend a lot of money for college itself, but when students have the desire to buy alcohol in that kind of manner, we have to understand that there is a problem t... ...d or affected in a negative way. One purpose of a college or university is to promote safety to its students. If we don’t promote enough safety our students will be thrown into unsafe drinking. Works Cited Hunter, Drew. "Peer to Peer: Effective College Learning: About Alcohol and Other Health Issues." Change 36.3 (2004): 40-44. JSTOR. Web. 8 Jan. 2011. Lederman, Linda C. "Changing the Culture of College Drinking." Web. 8 Jan. 2011. Wechsler, Henry, Toben Nelson, and Elissa Weitzman. "From Knowledge to Action: How Harvard's College Alcohol Study Can Help Your Campus Design a Campaign against Student Alcohol Abuse." Change 32.1 (2000): 32-43. JSTOR. Web. 8 Jan. 2011. Wolburg, Joyce M. "The "Risky Business" of Binge Drinking among College Students: Using Risk Models for PSAs and Anti-Drinking Campaigns." Change 36.3 (2004): 23-39. JSTOR. Web. 8 Jan. 2011.

Small Scale Production of Yogurt

SMALL SCALE PRODUCTION OF YOGURT Yogurt is a sour milk product. Its sour taste is attributed to the presence of lactic acid yielded by bacteria through fermentation. Bacteria that are commonly used in yoghurt production are Streptococcus thermophilus and Lactobacillus bulgaricus. These bacteria have the ability to break down sugars in the milk producing lactate or lactic acid as by-product. Below is a step-by-step procedure in the production of yogurt. Find out from the procedure why yogurt has low fat content.Note: Practice aseptic technique. Wash hands before proceeding and wear lab gown, head cap, latex gloves and if necessary, facial mask to prevent unwanted contamination of the pre-yogurt mixture. Ingredients (good for one group) 1. 500 mL homogenized pasteurized milk (to be bought and brought as 1L pack good for two groups) to be provided: 2. 15 grams skim milk powder (SMP) 3. 50 grams refined sugar 4. 40 ml starter culture bacteria from natural yoghurt prepared as follows : % skim milk powder in distilled water, yoghurt or yakult, incubated at 43o to 46o for 3 to 4 hours till clotted Procedure 1. In a clean container, carefully transfer the milk and carefully dissolve the SMP and sugar. Cover with aluminum foil and heat the mixture at 90oC (water bath) for 10 minutes. 2. Cool down to 50oC in a bath of ice water. 3. Meanwhile shake the culture of the starter bacteria to free it from lumps and carefully add (inoculate) to the milk. Make sure that the temperature of the container is cool enough to touch.Mix to evenly distribute the starter culture. 5. Transfer the inoculated milk into the plastic container provided. Seal the lid with masking tape and label the container properly (group number, section and instructor). 6. Incubate the milk at 43oC to 46oC in an incubator overnight. At this point this will be taken cared of by the lab technicians and will be chilled at 4C thereafter. Reference: Davide, Clara L. 1996. Microbial Production of Yoghurt and Cheese . Training Seminar sponsored by PSM held at Ateneo de Manila, January 29-30.

Free Essays on Classification Of Automobiles

Classification of Automobiles The introduction of Henry Ford’s assembly line and the shiny black coupe it produced transformed the automobile from a luxury into a necessity. As a result the automobile industry has rocketed to new heights leaving the consumer with plenty to consider when shopping for a new vehicle. Buyers, however, spend a great deal of time deciding on a price range that coincides with their income or deciding what will catch the attention of others, when in reality they should spend more time looking at what type of vehicle is most suitable for their lifestyles. Nevertheless, this decision alone could still leave the buyer stressed out since there are several types of vehicles on the market these days. One solution is to classify all vehicles as cars, trucks or SUVs. This would relieve them from some of the stresses they might encounter during this grueling processes. Let’s say you have decided to buy a new vehicle, but you are not sure what to get. First you have to ask yourself what would facilitate your day-to-day needs. If you are looking for something economical, a car is always a safe bet. Cars tend to have smaller price tags than trucks and SUV’s, sparing your wallet. They get good gas mileage and are cheaper to repair. Cars are also suitable for everyday errands; carting the kids around, getting groceries, and going to work. Some styles of cars even come with an all-wheel drive package, which is handy in harsh winters. But there are times when a car doesn’t do what you need it to. This is when a truck might come into play. Trucks were strictly used as work vehicles when they were first introduced; they were too expensive to run on a day-to-day basis. Trucks now-a-days fit a wider verity of needs. Trucks can do every thing cars can and more. They come in two, three, and four door models with short or long beds, fleet or step sides, and small, medium or large bodies. Although t... Free Essays on Classification Of Automobiles Free Essays on Classification Of Automobiles Classification of Automobiles The introduction of Henry Ford’s assembly line and the shiny black coupe it produced transformed the automobile from a luxury into a necessity. As a result the automobile industry has rocketed to new heights leaving the consumer with plenty to consider when shopping for a new vehicle. Buyers, however, spend a great deal of time deciding on a price range that coincides with their income or deciding what will catch the attention of others, when in reality they should spend more time looking at what type of vehicle is most suitable for their lifestyles. Nevertheless, this decision alone could still leave the buyer stressed out since there are several types of vehicles on the market these days. One solution is to classify all vehicles as cars, trucks or SUVs. This would relieve them from some of the stresses they might encounter during this grueling processes. Let’s say you have decided to buy a new vehicle, but you are not sure what to get. First you have to ask yourself what would facilitate your day-to-day needs. If you are looking for something economical, a car is always a safe bet. Cars tend to have smaller price tags than trucks and SUV’s, sparing your wallet. They get good gas mileage and are cheaper to repair. Cars are also suitable for everyday errands; carting the kids around, getting groceries, and going to work. Some styles of cars even come with an all-wheel drive package, which is handy in harsh winters. But there are times when a car doesn’t do what you need it to. This is when a truck might come into play. Trucks were strictly used as work vehicles when they were first introduced; they were too expensive to run on a day-to-day basis. Trucks now-a-days fit a wider verity of needs. Trucks can do every thing cars can and more. They come in two, three, and four door models with short or long beds, fleet or step sides, and small, medium or large bodies. Although t...

Free Essays on Sparta Vs. Athens

As Greece ascended from the dark ages, two very distinct city-states, Sparta and Athens, each possessing its own unique values, defined its development. Athens emphasized the importance of democracy and shared justice, while Sparta prided its military prowess. Athenians boasted their superior form of democracy, while the Spartans would subject the youth to rigorous military training. A good education and a superior political system define the society in Athens, while aspiration for manliness and military glory shapes Sparta’s sociological structure. The ideal for Sparta was to train soldiers from their youth- to have a country full of able fighters and warriors. In fact, despite the relatively sparse population of Spartans, the community had a strong military presence, and extraordinary power. The ideal life was one striving towards the military. Obedience was the main subject of study among young Spartans, as they were sent to a public guardian, known as a paidonomos, instead of being treated by a private tutor. At the same time that life as a warrior was held in highest regard, death as a soldier was also the most lauded form of decease, as can be seen from the first line of a poem written by Tyrtaeus, a poet active around the Second Messenian War in the mid-sixth century B.C.E, â€Å"Beautiful and honorable it is for a brave warrior to die, fallen among the foremost fighters, in battle for his native land†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Tyrtaeus promotes soldiers to â€Å"not begin shameful flight of fear†¦and do not show love for you r lives when you are fighting with warriors.† When a young soldier falls in battle, it is â€Å"beautiful and honorable when he lies among the foremost fighters.† The Spartans are taught here that he most important ideal in life is the military. The Spartan youth were subjected to a life that would prepare them for every possible situation bound to arise in a military scenario. They did not wear shoes, which would serve only ... Free Essays on Sparta Vs. Athens Free Essays on Sparta Vs. Athens As Greece ascended from the dark ages, two very distinct city-states, Sparta and Athens, each possessing its own unique values, defined its development. Athens emphasized the importance of democracy and shared justice, while Sparta prided its military prowess. Athenians boasted their superior form of democracy, while the Spartans would subject the youth to rigorous military training. A good education and a superior political system define the society in Athens, while aspiration for manliness and military glory shapes Sparta’s sociological structure. The ideal for Sparta was to train soldiers from their youth- to have a country full of able fighters and warriors. In fact, despite the relatively sparse population of Spartans, the community had a strong military presence, and extraordinary power. The ideal life was one striving towards the military. Obedience was the main subject of study among young Spartans, as they were sent to a public guardian, known as a paidonomos, instead of being treated by a private tutor. At the same time that life as a warrior was held in highest regard, death as a soldier was also the most lauded form of decease, as can be seen from the first line of a poem written by Tyrtaeus, a poet active around the Second Messenian War in the mid-sixth century B.C.E, â€Å"Beautiful and honorable it is for a brave warrior to die, fallen among the foremost fighters, in battle for his native land†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Tyrtaeus promotes soldiers to â€Å"not begin shameful flight of fear†¦and do not show love for you r lives when you are fighting with warriors.† When a young soldier falls in battle, it is â€Å"beautiful and honorable when he lies among the foremost fighters.† The Spartans are taught here that he most important ideal in life is the military. The Spartan youth were subjected to a life that would prepare them for every possible situation bound to arise in a military scenario. They did not wear shoes, which would serve only ...

Poem Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Poem - Essay Example It is a plausible assertion to make that the â€Å"voice† in the poem is that of William Stafford who is presenting a realistic account to the reader. Of much significance is the tone of the poem and how Stafford chooses to address his audience. What may appear as the poet’s indifference towards the dead deer is soon transformed into sympathy as he touches the animal’s belly and feels the warmth of the life that is growing inside of her. The seemingly compassionate nature of this action, however, is short lived as the progress towards the fourth stanza of the poem brings into light the inner conflicts of the speaker. "It is usually best to roll them into the canyon: that road is narrow; to swerve might make more dead† (Stafford 11): the speaker had initially thought upon encountering the deer that her carcass must be removed from the path of traffic, but he soon drifted into his thoughts before the action could materialize. In this moment in the poem the to ne shifts to a display of sympathy, however, the poet’s removal of the deer as he had aimed to do is a representation of the ironic tone of the poem which reappears in the forefront towards the departure of the blank verse. The symbolism of the word â€Å"Dark† is a notion which is central to the literary work. Even though, the literal meaning of the term is obvious from the title itself the figurative meaning of the word holds the immense significance due to its multidimensional interpretations. Stafford’s use of the word â€Å"Dark† represents shock, confusion, destruction, threat, struggle, death, destiny, and even failure; humanity’s failure to synchronize and harmonize what it invented and what God created. Like the dead deer lying on the edge of Wilson River road, death is the fate of every living creature, and this is a fact that cannot be denied. Therefore, the darkness in the literary work is also the darkness of death. The beauty of the i magery used by Stafford in the poem is that the poet allows it to be open for interpretation rather than being unequivocally clear about its purpose and intention in the context of the literary work. An intriguing line with respect to this observation says, â€Å"I stood in the glare of the warm exhaust turning red† (Stafford 11), where the reader is provided with the liberty to imagine the poet standing against his car with red light on his face. Certainly, this image can be interpreted in numerous ways, primarily because the connotations associated with this depiction can be comprehended as a plethora of emotions. If the red light is believed to be indicating danger then what or who is in danger? Is it the incoming cars that might meet with an accident if the poet decides that the animal carcass should not be removed? Or is it humanity itself which is in jeopardy as it refuses to mend its ways and revere nature as it is meant to be revered? Furthermore, the imagery of the à ¢â‚¬Å"warm exhaust turning red† can also be associated with the emotions being felt by the speaker himself; these emotions that range from confusion, aggression to even embarrassment represent the challenges and complexity of the situation. Furthermore, Stafford’s use of imagery in the literary w

Marketing for Southwest Airline Company Case Study

Marketing for Southwest Airline Company - Case Study Example The main reason for this is the dissatisfaction that the individuals and companies experience from the complex pricing strategy if the airline industry. This is a negative implication for the industry since it results in loss of customers and thereby placing it at a risk of making losses or yielding lower returns for the potential and existing investors. The industry is also at the threat of facing external attacks such as by the terrorists whose impact is negative on the operation of the industry. The attacks result in losses that take a long time to recover. They also result in loss of the significant number of customers as some flights need to be canceled while others still need to be rescheduled. These inconveniences result to traffics experienced by customers which end up inconveniencing many, leading to dissatisfaction in the passengers. This inconvenience also results in many passengers shifting to the competitors of the industries and others substituting air transport to other means of transportation. This as well results in losses that are either irrecoverable or take some time to be recovered. This further ends up lowering returns for the investors both the existing and the potential (Rouse 4). An agreement to Buffet’s assertion is also based on the fact that the airline industry is highly competitive and profitability is highly sensitive to capital and operating cost changes. The industry, therefore, lacks stability in terms of expected profits. This also results from the threat of competitors who tend to set their fares and prices by reviewing the prices set by the industry. This leads to them engaging in an unhealthy competition which is price based. This leads the industry to not being able to determine what it needs to stabilize its profitability.